{"slug": "mesopotamia", "label": "Mesopotamia", "wikipedia": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia", "wikidata": "https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11767", "qid": "Q11767", "description": "historical region within the Tigris–Euphrates river system", "entries": 70, "years": 68, "span": [-2899, 1195], "span_label": ["2900 BCE", "1195 CE"], "topics": [{"title": "Conflict & Security", "count": 44}, {"title": "Religion & Belief", "count": 6}, {"title": "Exploration & Expansion", "count": 5}, {"title": "Geopolitics & Diplomacy", "count": 5}, {"title": "Deaths", "count": 4}, {"title": "Climate & Environment", "count": 3}, {"title": "Births", "count": 1}, {"title": "Technology & Infrastructure", "count": 1}, {"title": "Crime & Justice", "count": 1}], "related": [{"slug": "syria", "label": "Syria", "shared": 15}, {"slug": "iraq", "label": "Iraq", "shared": 11}, {"slug": "armenia", "label": "Armenia", "shared": 10}, {"slug": "muslim", "label": "Muslim", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "byzantine-empire", "label": "Byzantine Empire", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "antioch", "label": "Antioch", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "babylonia", "label": "Babylonia", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "euphrates", "label": "Euphrates", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "parthia", "label": "Parthia", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "zanj-rebellion", "label": "Zanj Rebellion", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "zanj", "label": "Zanj", "shared": 4}, {"slug": "constantinople", "label": "Constantinople", "shared": 3}], "items": [{"year": -2899, "year_label": "2900 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "2900 BC: 2334 BC: Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371895849#Events", "title": "29th century BC", "revid": 1371895849, "section": "Events"}}, {"year": -2409, "year_label": "2410 BCE", "section": "Religion & Belief", "date": null, "text": "c. 2410 BC: By this time, kings in Sumer have ceased to be automatically high priests of the city deity. (Roux 1980) Infiltration and conquest of Mesopotamia by ancient Semitic-speaking peoples begins. (1968 RD Almanac)", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371895857#Events", "title": "25th century BC", "revid": 1371895857, "section": "Events"}}, {"year": -1748, "year_label": "1749 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "1749 BC: Samsu-iluna succeeds Hammurabi as king of Babylon. However, his rule is not very effective, and Mesopotamia endures turmoil during his reign.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370570236#Events", "title": "18th century BC", "revid": 1370570236, "section": "Events"}}, {"year": -1748, "year_label": "1749 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "1749 BC – 1712 BC: Mesopotamian Rebellions.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370570236#Events", "title": "18th century BC", "revid": 1370570236, "section": "Events"}}, {"year": -331, "year_label": "332 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "The Persian King Darius III twice sends on horseback to Alexander letters of friendship. The second time he offers a large ransom for his family, the ceding of all of the Persian Empire west of the Euphrates River, and the hand of his daughter in return for an alliance. Alexander rejects both letters and marches into Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1322067290#Persian_Empire", "title": "332 BC", "revid": 1322067290, "section": "Events › By place › Persian Empire"}}, {"year": -322, "year_label": "323 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Arcesilas rules northern Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1311163255#Macedonian_Empire", "title": "323 BC", "revid": 1311163255, "section": "Events › By place › Macedonian Empire"}}, {"year": -310, "year_label": "311 BCE", "section": "Exploration & Expansion", "date": null, "text": "Upon entering Mesopotamia Seleucus manages to persuade some of the Macedonian veterans settled at Carrhae to join his cause. He then marches on to his old satrapy (province) of Babylonia gathering additional force along the way.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1230109286#Babylonia/Media/Susiana", "title": "311 BC", "revid": 1230109286, "section": "Events › By place › Babylonia/Media/Susiana"}}, {"year": -307, "year_label": "308 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Antigonus marches his main army east to confront Seleucus. The Antigonid and Seleucid armies meet somewhere in southern Mesopotamia or northern Babylonia and a battle is fought to a draw. The next morning Seleucus launches a surprise attack on Antigonus' camp and wins a simple victory. After his defeat Antigonus gives up on his ambitions to reconquer the eastern provinces.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1358626493#Mesopotamia/Babylonia", "title": "308 BC", "revid": 1358626493, "section": "Events › By place › Mesopotamia/Babylonia"}}, {"year": -302, "year_label": "303 BCE", "section": "Exploration & Expansion", "date": null, "text": "Seleucus refounds the town of Orrhoa in northern Mesopotamia as a military colony and mixes Greek settlers with its eastern population. He names Edessa in memory of the ancient capital of Macedon.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1354172932#Seleucid_Empire", "title": "303 BC", "revid": 1354172932, "section": "Events › By place › Seleucid Empire"}}, {"year": -242, "year_label": "243 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Ptolemy III returns from Syria due to a revolt in Egypt. As a result, Seleucus II is able to regain control of his kingdom with the Egyptians being pushed out of Mesopotamia and part of Northern Syria.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1354172722#Egypt", "title": "243 BC", "revid": 1354172722, "section": "Events › By place › Egypt"}}, {"year": -199, "year_label": "200 BCE", "section": "Exploration & Expansion", "date": null, "text": "Lost-wax casting is known in China and Mesopotamia (approximate date).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1360771623#Art", "title": "200 BC", "revid": 1360771623, "section": "Events › By topic › Art"}}, {"year": -194, "year_label": "195 BCE", "section": "Births", "date": null, "text": "Mithridates I (or Mithradates), \"Great King\" of Parthia from about 171 BC who turned Parthia into a major political power and expanded the empire westward into Mesopotamia (d. 138 BC)", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1300115647#Births", "title": "195 BC", "revid": 1300115647, "section": "Births"}}, {"year": -186, "year_label": "187 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "The Seleucid king, Antiochus III, attempts to collect tribute from a temple near Susa, Persia, where he was killed. He is succeeded by his son, Seleucus IV, who inherits an empire consisting of Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, western Iran.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1223702100#Seleucid_Empire", "title": "187 BC", "revid": 1223702100, "section": "Events › By place › Seleucid Empire"}}, {"year": -128, "year_label": "129 BCE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Battle of Ecbatana: the Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes is defeated and killed by the Parthians under Phraates II, ending Seleucid control over Media or Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1369561461#Syria", "title": "129 BC", "revid": 1369561461, "section": "Events › By place › Syria"}}, {"year": 59, "year_label": "59 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, Roman commander in the east, captures Tigranocerta in Mesopotamia. He installs Tigranes VI, a Cappadocian prince, as ruler of Armenia. For the next four years, a cohort from Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X Fretensis is stationed in the capital as bodyguard to the king, supported by fifteen hundred auxiliaries.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1373339620#Caucasus", "title": "50s", "revid": 1373339620, "section": "Events › 59 AD › Caucasus"}}, {"year": 74, "year_label": "74 CE", "section": "Religion & Belief", "date": null, "text": "Mesopotamia: The last known cuneiform text is written.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1332696044#Arts_and_Science", "title": "AD 74", "revid": 1332696044, "section": "Events › By topic › Arts and Science"}}, {"year": 92, "year_label": "92 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "The Roman army moves into Mesopotamia (modern Syria).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1330324122#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 92", "revid": 1330324122, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 114, "year_label": "114 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Emperor Trajan defeats the Parthians and overruns Armenia and northern Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1330326111#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 114", "revid": 1330326111, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 115, "year_label": "115 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Emperor Trajan is cut off in southern Mesopotamia after his invasion of that region.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371191693#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 115", "revid": 1371191693, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 117, "year_label": "117 CE", "section": "Geopolitics & Diplomacy", "date": null, "text": "Hadrian returns large parts of Mesopotamia to the Parthians as part of a peace settlement. He inaugurates a policy of retrenchment and cultural integration, giving up the policy of conquest of his predecessor in order to consolidate the empire.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371187799#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 117", "revid": 1371187799, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 165, "year_label": "165 CE", "section": "Exploration & Expansion", "date": null, "text": "Avidius Cassius takes Nisibis, and conquers the north of Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371302074#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 165", "revid": 1371302074, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 166, "year_label": "166 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "End of the war with Parthia: The Parthians leave Armenia and eastern Mesopotamia, which both become Roman protectorates.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371302266#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 166", "revid": 1371302266, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 171, "year_label": "171 CE", "section": "Geopolitics & Diplomacy", "date": null, "text": "Armenia and Mesopotamia become protectorates of the Roman Empire.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371303100#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 171", "revid": 1371303100, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 197, "year_label": "197 CE", "section": "Geopolitics & Diplomacy", "date": null, "text": "Septimius Severus reconstitutes the Province of Mesopotamia under an equestrian governor commanding two legions.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371314350#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 197", "revid": 1371314350, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 197, "year_label": "197 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "The Roman army marches east to repel a Parthian invasion of Mesopotamia; they loot the royal palace at Ctesiphon and capture an enormous number of its inhabitants as slaves.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371314350#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 197", "revid": 1371314350, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 199, "year_label": "199 CE", "section": "Exploration & Expansion", "date": null, "text": "Mesopotamia is partitioned into two Roman provinces divided by the Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Osroene.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371314736#Roman_Empire", "title": "AD 199", "revid": 1371314736, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 232, "year_label": "232 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Roman–Persian Wars: Emperor Alexander Severus launches a three-pronged counterattack against the Persian forces of King Ardashir I, who have invaded Mesopotamia. However, the Roman army advancing through Armenia is halted. Alexander gives the order to march to the capital at Ctesiphon, but the Romans are defeated, and withdraw to Syria. The result is an acceptance of the status quo, and after heavy losses on both sides, a truce is signed.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371191236#Roman_Empire", "title": "232", "revid": 1371191236, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 243, "year_label": "243 CE", "section": "Deaths", "date": null, "text": "Emperor Gordian III appoints Philip the Arab as his new praetorian prefect (after the death of Timesitheus) and proceeds with his campaign in Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371188641#Roman_Empire", "title": "243", "revid": 1371188641, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 244, "year_label": "244 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": "February 11", "text": "February 11 – Emperor Gordian III is murdered by mutinous soldiers in Zaitha (Mesopotamia). A mound is raised at Carchemish in his memory.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371227716#Roman_Empire", "title": "244", "revid": 1371227716, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 256, "year_label": "256 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "King Shapur I of the Sasanian Empire invades Mesopotamia and Syria. He conquers and plunders Antioch, destroys Dura-Europos, and sacks the Anatolian city of Zeugma on the Euphrates. A devastating fire and an earthquake soon follow, causing Zeugma to be abandoned.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371188385#Roman_Empire", "title": "256", "revid": 1371188385, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 259, "year_label": "259 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Mesopotamia: Odaenathus, the ruler of the kingdom of Palmyra, sacks the city of Nehardea, destroying its great yeshiva.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1331138913#Persia", "title": "259", "revid": 1331138913, "section": "Events › By place › Persia"}}, {"year": 298, "year_label": "298 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Caesar Galerius restores Tiridates III to the throne of Armenia and invades the Sassanid Empire. His army marches through Adiabene, Atropatene, Susiana and Lower Mesopotamia. He then retakes the strategically important city of Nisibis in Upper Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1339920738#Roman_Empire", "title": "298", "revid": 1339920738, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 299, "year_label": "299 CE", "section": "Geopolitics & Diplomacy", "date": null, "text": "Peace of Nisibis: Emperor Diocletian signs a treaty with the Persian king Narseh that will last for 40 years. The Persians accept Roman dominion over Armenia, the Caucasus, and Upper Mesopotamia. The pro-Roman ruler Tiridates III receives all of Armenia as far as the border with Atropatene. Mirian III of the Kingdom of Iberia is made a Roman client, and at some point in time, as a result of the treaty, Caucasian Albania will follow suit. Rome also gains five satrapies beyond the Tigris, which are perhaps given to Tiridates to administer.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1267078871#Roman_Empire", "title": "299", "revid": 1267078871, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 344, "year_label": "344 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Battle of Singara: The Roman army under Constantius wins a close victory, at the strongly fortified city of Singara (Mesopotamia). His enemy, King Shapur II, is forced to lift the siege, and withdraw the Persian army.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1314901826#Roman_Empire", "title": "344", "revid": 1314901826, "section": "Events › By place › Roman Empire"}}, {"year": 421, "year_label": "421 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Roman–Sassanid War: Theodosius II starts a war against the Sassanids, sending an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and invades Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364903948#Persia", "title": "421", "revid": 1364903948, "section": "Events › By place › Persia"}}, {"year": 499, "year_label": "499 CE", "section": "Climate & Environment", "date": "September", "text": "September – The 499 Nicopolis earthquake takes place in the borders between the regions of Mesopotamia, Pontus, and Roman Armenia. It affects the cities of Nicopolis, Neocaesarea (modern Niksar), Arsamosata, and Abarne, as well as the cultural areas of Anatolia (Asia Minor) and Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367503464#Middle_East", "title": "499", "revid": 1367503464, "section": "Events › By place › Middle East"}}, {"year": 503, "year_label": "503 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "War with Sassanid Persia: Emperor Anastasius I sends a Byzantine army (52,000 men) to Armenia, but is defeated. The Romans attempt an unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held city Amida, on the Tigris. King Kavadh I invades Osroene, and lays siege to the city of Edessa (Northern Mesopotamia).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364904019#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "503", "revid": 1364904019, "section": "Events › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 505, "year_label": "505 CE", "section": "Geopolitics & Diplomacy", "date": null, "text": "Anastasius I decides to rebuild the village of Dara (Northern Mesopotamia). He constructs a new strategic fortress to guard the frontier.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364907851#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "505", "revid": 1364907851, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 507, "year_label": "507 CE", "section": "Technology & Infrastructure", "date": null, "text": "Emperor Anastasius I completes the strategic fortress at Dara (Northern Mesopotamia). He raises the city walls to 30 feet (10 m), disregarding Persian protests. Alarmed by the depredations of Slavs and Bulgars in Thrace, he builds the Anastasian Wall from the Black Sea to Propontis, across the narrow peninsula near Constantinople (modern Turkey).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364907722#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "507", "revid": 1364907722, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 574, "year_label": "574 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Winter – Empress Sophia and Tiberius agree to a one year truce with the Persians, at the cost of 45,000 solidi. The truce applies only to the Mesopotamian front; in the Caucasus, war continues.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1349204925#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "574", "revid": 1349204925, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 579, "year_label": "579 CE", "section": "Deaths", "date": null, "text": "Byzantine-Sassanid War: King Khosrau I seeks peace, but dies before an agreement can be reached. The Mesopotamian front becomes stalemated, and Maurice (magister militum of the East) fortifies the borders in Armenia and Syria.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1267073496#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "579", "revid": 1267073496, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 591, "year_label": "591 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Byzantine–Sassanid War: Emperor Maurice, seeing an opportunity to end the prolonged war to the advantage of Constantinople, assists Khosrau II to regain the Persian throne. He sends a Byzantine army (35,000 men) under Narses into Mesopotamia, through Syria. At the same time, an expeditionary force in Armenia advances through Caucasian Iberia into Media (modern Azerbaijan).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364751608#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "591", "revid": 1364751608, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 611, "year_label": "611 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Byzantine–Persian War: The Persian army under Shahrbaraz captures Antioch, and most of the remaining Byzantine fortresses in Syria and Mesopotamia. King Khosrau II is re-establishing a neo-Persian Empire, and intensifies his war effort. The Byzantine army, ruined by defeat and corruption, offers only half-hearted opposition.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1340802764#Persian_Empire", "title": "611", "revid": 1340802764, "section": "Events › By place › Persian Empire"}}, {"year": 633, "year_label": "633 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": "April", "text": "April – Battle of Chains (Kuwait) and Battle of River (Iraq): A Muslim army (18,000 men) under Khalid ibn al-Walid invades Mesopotamia, and wins decisive victories.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1351044118#Arabia", "title": "633", "revid": 1351044118, "section": "Events › By place › Arabia"}}, {"year": 634, "year_label": "634 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Battle of Firaz: The Rashidun Arabs (15,000 men) under Khalid ibn al-Walid defeat the combined forces of the Byzantine Empire, Persian Empire and Arab Christians (at least 10 times larger than Khalid's army) in Mesopotamia (Iraq).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1299946990#Arabia", "title": "634", "revid": 1299946990, "section": "Events › By place › Arabia"}}, {"year": 636, "year_label": "636 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": "November 16", "text": "November 16–19 – Battle of al-Qādisiyyah: The Muslim Arab army defeats the Persian forces under Rostam Farrokhzād, at Al-Qādisiyyah (Southern Mesopotamia).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1267068315#Arabia", "title": "636", "revid": 1267068315, "section": "Events › By place › Arabia"}}, {"year": 637, "year_label": "637 CE", "section": "Religion & Belief", "date": null, "text": "The Muslims replace Zoroastrianism with Islam in Mesopotamia (later Iraq); they do not force their conquered subjects to embrace the Islamic faith, but they do require acceptance of the Quran as the doctrine of divine teaching, and will oblige their subjects to learn Arabic (approximate date).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1315736944#Religion", "title": "637", "revid": 1315736944, "section": "Events › By topic › Religion"}}, {"year": 639, "year_label": "639 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Hormuzan, Persian satrap of Susiana (vassal of the Rashidun Caliphate), revolts against the Muslims and raids Mesopotamia. Arab forces under Abu Musa al-Asha'ari destroy Susa in the lower Zagros Mountains.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364754023#Arabian_Empire", "title": "639", "revid": 1364754023, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 641, "year_label": "641 CE", "section": "Deaths", "date": "February 11", "text": "February 11 – Emperor Heraclius, age 65, dies of dropsy at Constantinople after a 31-year reign. He reorganized the imperial administration, but lost Armenia, parts of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Byzantine Mesopotamia to the Muslim Arabs. Heraclius is succeeded by his sons Constantine III and Heraklonas.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364764166#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "641", "revid": 1364764166, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 680, "year_label": "680 CE", "section": "Religion & Belief", "date": null, "text": "Yazid I, son of Muawiyah I, becomes the sixth caliph (second Umayyad caliph) but Kufans in Mesopotamia rebel and invite Hussein ibn Ali (grandson of Muhammad) to take the throne.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1331672551#Arabian_Empire", "title": "680", "revid": 1331672551, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 686, "year_label": "686 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, former governor of Mesopotamia, tries to regain control of his province, as the various Muslim tribes in the region Kufa (Iraq) are engaged in an Islamic civil war.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1367994465#Arabian_Empire", "title": "686", "revid": 1367994465, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 691, "year_label": "691 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Battle of Maskin: An Umayyad army under caliph Abd al-Malik defeats the rebel forces in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). He reconquers the Arabian Peninsula, taking the holy city of Medina.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1340806265#Arabian_Empire", "title": "691", "revid": 1340806265, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 697, "year_label": "697 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Syrian forces under Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, governor of Iraq, defeat the Persian Kharijites, who have captured the city of Mosul and occupy large parts of Mesopotamia (approximate date).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1361010652#Arabian_Empire", "title": "697", "revid": 1361010652, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 714, "year_label": "714 CE", "section": "Deaths", "date": null, "text": "Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, governor of Mesopotamia, dies at Wasit (Iraq) after a 20-year administration. He is credited for improving agricultural production and introducing the diacritic points to the Arabic script. Al-Hajjaj convinces Al-Walid I to adopt an Arab currency.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364468088#Arabian_Empire", "title": "714", "revid": 1364468088, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 717, "year_label": "717 CE", "section": "Climate & Environment", "date": "December 24", "text": "December 24 – A destructive earthquake, with six months of aftershocks, affects Syria and Mesopotamia.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1340808622#Asia", "title": "717", "revid": 1340808622, "section": "Events › By place › Asia"}}, {"year": 727, "year_label": "727 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Arab–Khazar War: The Khazars drive back the Muslim invasion, led by Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, into Mesopotamia. Reinforced with Syrian troops, Maslama counterattacks and takes Georgia, establishing the northern frontier on the Caucasus.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1372352645#Asia", "title": "AD 727", "revid": 1372352645, "section": "Events › By place › Asia"}}, {"year": 748, "year_label": "748 CE", "section": "Climate & Environment", "date": null, "text": "An earthquake strikes the Middle East from northern Egypt to northwestern Mesopotamia, destroying many remnants of Byzantine culture (approximate date).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1340809772#Asia", "title": "748", "revid": 1340809772, "section": "Events › By place › Asia"}}, {"year": 837, "year_label": "837 CE", "section": "Religion & Belief", "date": null, "text": "Byzantine–Arab War: Emperor Theophilos leads a massive Byzantine expeditionary force into Mesopotamia. He sacks the cities Arsamosata and Sozopetra — which some sources claim as the birthplace of Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tasim — and forces Melitene to pay tribute.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1340941882#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "837", "revid": 1340941882, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 871, "year_label": "871 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": "September", "text": "September – Battle of Basra: Zanj rebels in Mesopotamia sack and capture Basra (see Zanj Rebellion).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1341129558#Arabian_Empire", "title": "871", "revid": 1341129558, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 872, "year_label": "872 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "The Zanj Rebellion: The Zanj (black slaves from East Africa) defeat the Abbasid forces, led by caliphal regent Al-Muwaffaq (brother of caliph Al-Mu'tamid). Hostilities in Mesopotamia (Southern Iraq) will preoccupy Al-Muwaffaq, and the Zanj will remain on the offensive over the next several years.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1267071842#Arabian_Empire", "title": "872", "revid": 1267071842, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 878, "year_label": "878 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Zanj Rebellion: The Zanj (black slaves from East Africa) in Mesopotamia seize Wasit (modern Iraq), and establish a presence in the Persian province of Khuzestan.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1353695287#Arabian_Empire", "title": "878", "revid": 1353695287, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 879, "year_label": "879 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Zanj Rebellion: The Abbasid Caliphate concentrates its efforts against the Zanj rebels in Mesopotamia. The Abbasid general Al-Mu'tadid leads an expeditionary force (10,000 men) to suppress the revolt. This marks the turning-point of the war.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1348046041#Arabian_Empire", "title": "879", "revid": 1348046041, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 899, "year_label": "899 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Shaybani, Muslim ruler of Diyar Bakr, surrenders at the besieged capital of Amid (modern Turkey) to Caliph Al-Mu'tadid in exchange for clemency. Al-Muktafi, the son of Al-Mu'tadid, is installed as governor of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), ending the semi-independent Shaybanid Dynasty, which has ruled in Diyar Bakr since the 870s.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1341130263#Arabian_Empire", "title": "899", "revid": 1341130263, "section": "Events › By place › Arabian Empire"}}, {"year": 943, "year_label": "943 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Spring – Allied with the Rus', a Hungarian army raids Moesia and Thrace. Emperor Romanos I buys peace, and accepts to pay a yearly tribute (protection money) to the Hungarians. His frontiers now 'protected' on the Balkan Peninsula, Romanos sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (80,000 men) led by general John Kourkouas (his commander-in-chief) to invade northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1364916983#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "943", "revid": 1364916983, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 965, "year_label": "965 CE", "section": "Crime & Justice", "date": "September 23", "text": "September 23 – Al-Mutanabbi, an Abbasid poet, returns from 5 years in Mesopotamia. He has lived at Shiraz under the protection of the Buyid emir 'Adud al-Dawla, but bandits kill him near An Numaniyah (modern Iran).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1371364470#Literature", "title": "965", "revid": 1371364470, "section": "Events › By topic › Literature"}}, {"year": 975, "year_label": "975 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor John I raids Mesopotamia and invades Syria, using the Byzantine base at Antioch to press southwards to Tripoli. He conquers the cities of Baalbek, Damascus, Sidon, Tiberias and Caesarea, but fails to take Jerusalem.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1341513424#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "975", "revid": 1341513424, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 1067, "year_label": "1067 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Spring – The Seljuk Turks make incursions into Mesopotamia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. They sack the Byzantine city of Caesarea, move south through the Cilician Gates and raid the region around Antioch in Syria.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365260536#Seljuk_Empire", "title": "1067", "revid": 1365260536, "section": "Events › By place › Seljuk Empire"}}, {"year": 1069, "year_label": "1069 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Spring – Emperor Romanos IV begins a campaign against the Seljuk Turks, and marches towards the Euphrates via Melitene. He crosses the river at Romanopolis (modern Turkey), and captures the strategic fortress city of Chliat on the north-western shore of Lake Van. Romanos leaves a Byzantine rear guard on the upper Euphrates under General Philaretos Brachamios with orders to defend the Mesopotamian frontier.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1243049384#Byzantine_Empire", "title": "1069", "revid": 1243049384, "section": "Events › By place › Byzantine Empire"}}, {"year": 1127, "year_label": "1127 CE", "section": "Conflict & Security", "date": null, "text": "Imad ad-Din Zengi, a Turkish military leader, becomes governor (atabeg) of Mosul. He seizes the cities of Nisibin, Sinjar and Harran in the Jazira Region (Northern Mesopotamia).", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1348045996#Levant", "title": "1127", "revid": 1348045996, "section": "Events › By place › Levant"}}, {"year": 1195, "year_label": "1195 CE", "section": "Religion & Belief", "date": null, "text": "The Abbasid Caliph, Al-Nasir, takes military action against the Ayyubid Sultan, Al-Aziz Uthman, who controls Egypt and Syria. The Caliph mobilizes his forces and marches into Mesopotamia, directly challenging Ayyubid authority in the region of Iraq.", "cite": {"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1326044730#Events", "title": "1195", "revid": 1326044730, "section": "Events"}}]}