{"year":1878,"population":{"value":1397666358,"source":{"name":"Population (HYDE 3.3; Gapminder; UN World Population Prospects)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population","license":"CC BY 4.0"}},"leaders":{"states":[{"state":"Kingdom of Rwanda","region":"Africa","country":"Great Lakes area","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Rwanda","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Kigeli IV Rwabugiri","person":"Kigeli IV Rwabugiri","qid":"Q327452","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, King (1853–1895)"}]},{"state":"Sultanate of Zanzibar","region":"Africa","country":"Great Lakes area","wikipedia":"Sultanate of Zanzibar","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Barghash","person":"Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar","qid":"Q703018","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Barghash, Sultan (1870–1888)"}]},{"state":"Ethiopian Empire","region":"Africa","country":"Horn of Africa area","wikipedia":"Ethiopian Empire","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Yohannes IV","person":"Yohannes IV","qid":"Q315659","title":"Emperor","office":null,"quote":"Yohannes IV, Emperor (1871–1889)"}]},{"state":"Merina Kingdom","region":"Africa","country":"Indian Ocean","wikipedia":"Merina Kingdom","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Ranavalona II","person":"Ranavalona II","qid":"Q240168","title":"Queen","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Ranavalona II, Queen (1868–1883)"},{"name":"Rainilaiarivony","person":"Rainilaiarivony","qid":"Q528996","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Rainilaiarivony, Prime minister (1864–1895)"}]},{"state":"Beylik of Tunis","region":"Africa","country":"Tunisia","wikipedia":"Beylik of Tunis","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Muhammad III as-Sadiq","person":"Muhammad III as-Sadiq","qid":"Q1588031","title":"Bey","office":"Beys","quote":"Muhammad III as-Sadiq, Bey (1859–1882)"},{"name":"Mohammed Khaznadar","person":"Mohammed Khaznadar","qid":"Q3319036","title":"Grand vizier","office":"Grand viziers","quote":"Mohammed Khaznadar, Grand vizier (1877–1878, 1881–1882)"},{"name":"Mustapha Ben Ismaïl","person":"Mustapha Ben Ismaïl","qid":"Q3328917","title":"Grand vizier","office":"Grand viziers","quote":"Mustapha Ben Ismaïl, Grand vizier (1878–1881)"}]},{"state":"Khedivate of Egypt","region":"Africa","country":"Egypt","wikipedia":"Khedivate of Egypt","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Isma'il Pasha","person":"Isma'il Pasha","qid":"Q159378","title":"Khedive","office":"Khedive","quote":"Isma'il Pasha, Khedive (1863–1879)"},{"name":"Nubar Pasha","person":"Nubar Pasha","qid":"Q595285","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Nubar Pasha, Prime minister (1878–1879)"}]},{"state":"Morocco: Alaouite dynasty","region":"Africa","country":"Morocco and Western Sahara","wikipedia":"Alaouite dynasty","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Hassan I","person":"Hassan I of Morocco","qid":"Q496845","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Hassan I, Sultan (1873–1894)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Eswatini (Swaziland)","region":"Africa","country":"Eswatini/ Swaziland","wikipedia":"History of Eswatini","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Dlamini IV","person":"Mbandzeni","qid":"Q126294","title":"King","office":"Kings","quote":"Dlamini IV, King (1875–1889)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Ashanti","region":"Africa","country":"Ghana","wikipedia":"Ashanti Empire","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Mensa Bonsu","person":"Mensa Bonsu","qid":"Q1920707","title":"Asantehene","office":null,"quote":"Mensa Bonsu, Asantehene (1874–1883)"}]},{"state":"Liberia","region":"Africa","country":"Liberia","wikipedia":"Liberia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"James Spriggs Payne","person":"James Spriggs Payne","qid":"Q878874","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"James Spriggs Payne, President (1876–1878)"},{"name":"Anthony W. Gardner","person":"Anthony W. Gardner","qid":"Q574100","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Anthony W. Gardner, President (1878–1883)"}]},{"state":"Oyo Empire","region":"Africa","country":"Nigeria","wikipedia":"Oyo Empire","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Adeyemi I Alowolodu","person":"Adeyemi I Alowolodu","qid":"Q96007216","title":"Alaafin","office":null,"quote":"Adeyemi I Alowolodu, Alaafin (1876–1888), Oba (1888–1896)"}]},{"state":"Second Dominican Republic","region":"Americas","country":"Dominican Republic","wikipedia":"Second Republic (Dominican Republic)","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Jacinto de Castro","person":"Jacinto de Castro","qid":"Q6110816","title":"Acting President","office":null,"quote":"Jacinto de Castro, Acting President (1878)"}]},{"state":"Second Haitian Republic","region":"Americas","country":"Haiti","wikipedia":"Republic of Haiti (1859–1957)","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Pierre Théoma Boisrond-Canal","person":"Pierre Théoma Boisrond-Canal","qid":"Q886456","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Pierre Théoma Boisrond-Canal, Provisional President (1876), President (1876–1879)"}]},{"state":"El Salvador","region":"Americas","country":"El Salvador","wikipedia":"El Salvador","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Rafael Zaldívar","person":"Rafael Zaldívar","qid":"Q887758","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Rafael Zaldívar, President (1876–1884)"}]},{"state":"Honduras","region":"Americas","country":"Honduras","wikipedia":"Honduras","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Marco Aurelio Soto","person":"Marco Aurelio Soto","qid":"Q888054","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Marco Aurelio Soto, President (1876–1883)"}]},{"state":"Nicaragua","region":"Americas","country":"Nicaragua","wikipedia":"Nicaragua","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Alfaro","person":"Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Alfaro","qid":"Q888722","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Alfaro, President (1875–1879)"}]},{"state":"Canada","region":"Americas","country":"Canada","wikipedia":null,"key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Victoria","person":"Queen Victoria","qid":"Q9439","title":"Queen","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Victoria, Queen (1867–1901)"},{"name":"Alexander Mackenzie","person":"Alexander Mackenzie (politician)","qid":"Q128708","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Alexander Mackenzie, Prime minister (1873–1878)"},{"name":"John A. Macdonald","person":"John A. Macdonald","qid":"Q128702","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"John A. Macdonald, Prime minister (1867–1873, 1878–1891)"}]},{"state":"United States","region":"Americas","country":"United States","wikipedia":null,"key":"United States","holders":[{"name":"Rutherford B. Hayes","person":"Rutherford B. Hayes","qid":"Q35686","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Rutherford B. Hayes, President (1877–1881)"}]},{"state":"Argentine Republic","region":"Americas","country":"Argentina","wikipedia":null,"key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Nicolás Avellaneda","person":"Nicolás Avellaneda","qid":"Q441371","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Nicolás Avellaneda, President (1874–1880)"}]},{"state":"Republic of Bolivia","region":"Americas","country":"Bolivia","wikipedia":"Bolivia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Hilarión Daza","person":"Hilarión Daza","qid":"Q492024","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Hilarión Daza, President (1876–1879)"}]},{"state":"Empire of Brazil","region":"Americas","country":"Brazil","wikipedia":"Empire of Brazil","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Pedro II","person":"Pedro II of Brazil","qid":"Q156774","title":"Emperor","office":null,"quote":"Pedro II, Emperor (1831–1889)"}]},{"state":"Liberal Republic of Chile","region":"Americas","country":"Chile","wikipedia":"Liberal Republic","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Aníbal Pinto","person":"Aníbal Pinto","qid":"Q1324","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Aníbal Pinto, President (1876–1881)"}]},{"state":"United States of Colombia","region":"Americas","country":"Colombia","wikipedia":"United States of Colombia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Julián Trujillo Largacha","person":"Julián Trujillo Largacha","qid":"Q3091536","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Julián Trujillo Largacha, President (1878–1880)"}]},{"state":"Republic of Paraguay","region":"Americas","country":"Paraguay","wikipedia":"History of Paraguay","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Higinio Uriarte","person":"Higinio Uriarte","qid":"Q26554","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Higinio Uriarte, President (1877–1878)"},{"name":"Cándido Bareiro","person":"Cándido Bareiro","qid":"Q730957","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Cándido Bareiro, President (1878–1880)"}]},{"state":"Republic of Peru","region":"Americas","country":"Peru","wikipedia":null,"key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Mariano Ignacio Prado","person":"Mariano Ignacio Prado","qid":"Q529231","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Mariano Ignacio Prado, President (1876–1879)"}]},{"state":"Oriental Republic of Uruguay","region":"Americas","country":"Uruguay","wikipedia":"Uruguay","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Lorenzo Latorre","person":"Lorenzo Latorre","qid":"Q885848","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Lorenzo Latorre, President (1876–1880)"}]},{"state":"United States of Venezuela","region":"Americas","country":"Venezuela","wikipedia":"United States of Venezuela","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Francisco Linares Alcántara","person":"Francisco Linares Alcántara","qid":"Q2497665","title":"President","office":null,"quote":"Francisco Linares Alcántara, President (1877–1878)"}]},{"state":"Emirate of Bukhara","region":"Asia","country":"Uzbekistan","wikipedia":"Emirate of Bukhara","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Muzaffar al-Din bin Nasr-Allah","person":"Muzaffar al-Din bin Nasr-Allah","qid":"Q4305947","title":"Amir","office":null,"quote":"Muzaffar al-Din bin Nasr-Allah, Amir (1860–1885)"}]},{"state":"Qing dynasty","region":"Asia","country":"China","wikipedia":"Qing dynasty","key":"China","holders":[{"name":"Guangxu","person":"Guangxu Emperor","qid":"Q299710","title":"Emperor","office":null,"quote":"Guangxu, Emperor (1875–1908)"}]},{"state":"Empire of Japan","region":"Asia","country":"Japan","wikipedia":"Empire of Japan","key":"Japan","holders":[{"name":"Meiji","person":"Emperor Meiji","qid":"Q174231","title":"Emperor","office":"Emperors","quote":"Meiji, Emperor (1867–1912)"}]},{"state":"Joseon","region":"Asia","country":"Korea","wikipedia":"Joseon","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Gojong","person":"Gojong of Korea","qid":"Q257425","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Gojong, King (1863–1897), Emperor (1897–1907)"}]},{"state":"Bruneian Empire","region":"Asia","country":"Brunei","wikipedia":"Bruneian Empire","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Abdul Momin","person":"Abdul Momin","qid":"Q40390","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Abdul Momin, Sultan (1852–1885)"}]},{"state":"Surakarta Sunanate","region":"Asia","country":"Indonesia","wikipedia":"Surakarta Sunanate","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Pakubuwono IX","person":"Pakubuwono IX","qid":"Q2417617","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Pakubuwono IX, Sultan (1861–1893)"}]},{"state":"Yogyakarta Sultanate","region":"Asia","country":"Indonesia","wikipedia":"Yogyakarta Sultanate","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Hamengkubuwono VII","person":"Hamengkubuwono VII","qid":"Q2584101","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Hamengkubuwono VII, Sultan (1877–1921)"}]},{"state":"Aceh Sultanate","region":"Asia","country":"Indonesia","wikipedia":"Aceh Sultanate","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Alauddin Muhammad Da'ud Syah II","person":"Alauddin Muhammad Da'ud Syah II","qid":"Q12499353","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Alauddin Muhammad Da'ud Syah II, Sultan (1874–1903)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Champasak","region":"Asia","country":"Laos","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Champasak","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Kham Souk","person":"Kham Souk of Champasak","qid":"Q1740509","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Kham Souk, King (1863–1899)"}]},{"state":"Kedah Sultanate","region":"Asia","country":"Malaysia","wikipedia":"Kedah Sultanate","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Ahmad Tajuddin Mukarram Shah","person":"Ahmad Tajuddin Mukarram Shah of Kedah","qid":"Q2008526","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Ahmad Tajuddin Mukarram Shah, Sultan, (1854–1879)"}]},{"state":"Selangor Sultanate","region":"Asia","country":"Malaysia","wikipedia":"Selangor Sultanate","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Abdul Samad","person":"Abdul Samad of Selangor","qid":"Q4665716","title":"Sultan","office":null,"quote":"Abdul Samad, Sultan (1857–1896)"}]},{"state":"Negeri Sembilan","region":"Asia","country":"Malaysia","wikipedia":"Negeri Sembilan","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Antah","person":"Antah of Negeri Sembilan","qid":"Q12472231","title":"Yamtuan","office":null,"quote":"Antah, Yamtuan (1875–1888)"}]},{"state":"Konbaung dynasty","region":"Asia","country":"Myanmar / Burma","wikipedia":"Konbaung dynasty","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Mindon","person":"Mindon Min","qid":"Q574358","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Mindon, King (1853–1878)"},{"name":"Thibaw","person":"Thibaw Min","qid":"Q470986","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Thibaw, King (1878–1885)"}]},{"state":"Rattanakosin Kingdom of Siam","region":"Asia","country":"Thailand","wikipedia":"Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Chulalongkorn","person":"Chulalongkorn","qid":"Q158861","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Chulalongkorn, King (1868–1910)"}]},{"state":"Emirate of Afghanistan: Barakzai dynasty","region":"Asia","country":"Afghanistan","wikipedia":"Emirate of Afghanistan","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Sher Ali Khan","person":"Sher Ali Khan","qid":"Q40427","title":"Emir","office":null,"quote":"Sher Ali Khan, Emir (1863–1866, 1867–1879)"}]},{"state":"Hakims of Bahrain","region":"Asia","country":"Bahrain","wikipedia":"History of Bahrain (1783–1971)","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa","person":"Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa","qid":"Q343110","title":"Hakim","office":null,"quote":"Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa, Hakim (1869–1923)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Kuwait","region":"Asia","country":"Kuwait","wikipedia":"Sheikhdom of Kuwait","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Abdullah II","person":"Abdullah II Al-Sabah","qid":"Q3269504","title":"Sheikh","office":null,"quote":"Abdullah II, Sheikh (1866–1893)"}]},{"state":"Qatar","region":"Asia","country":"Qatar","wikipedia":null,"key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani","person":"Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani","qid":"Q4116076","title":"Emir","office":null,"quote":"Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani, Emir (1878–1913)"}]},{"state":"Ottoman Empire","region":"Asia","country":"Turkey","wikipedia":"Ottoman Empire","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Abdul Hamid II","person":"Abdul Hamid II","qid":"Q134817","title":"Sultan","office":"Sultans","quote":"Abdul Hamid II, Sultan (1876–1909)"},{"name":"Ibrahim Edhem Pasha","person":"Ibrahim Edhem Pasha","qid":"Q343262","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Ibrahim Edhem Pasha, Grand Vizier (1877–1878)"},{"name":"Ahmed Hamdi Pasha","person":"Ahmed Hamdi Pasha","qid":"Q4695840","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, Grand Vizier (1878)"},{"name":"Ahmed Vefik Pasha","person":"Ahmed Vefik Pasha","qid":"Q401541","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Ahmed Vefik Pasha, Grand Vizier (1878)"},{"name":"Mehmed Sadık Pasha","person":"Mehmed Sadık Pasha","qid":"Q6809562","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Mehmed Sadık Pasha, Grand Vizier (1878)"},{"name":"Mehmed Rushdi Pasha","person":"Mehmed Rushdi Pasha","qid":"Q3658437","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Mehmed Rushdi Pasha, Grand Vizier (1878)"},{"name":"Saffet Pasha","person":"Saffet Pasha","qid":"Q2369824","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Saffet Pasha, Grand Vizier (1878)"},{"name":"Hayreddin Pasha","person":"Hayreddin Pasha","qid":"Q1366613","title":"Grand Vizier","office":"Grand Viziers","quote":"Hayreddin Pasha, Grand Vizier (1878–1879)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Abu Dhabi","region":"Asia","country":"United Arab Emirates","wikipedia":"Emirate of Abu Dhabi","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan","person":"Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan","qid":"Q4119330","title":"ruler","office":null,"quote":"Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, ruler (1855–1909)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Dubai","region":"Asia","country":"United Arab Emirates","wikipedia":"Emirate of Dubai","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Hasher bin Maktoum","person":"Hasher bin Maktoum","qid":"Q340171","title":"ruler","office":null,"quote":"Hasher bin Maktoum, ruler (1859–1886)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Sharjah","region":"Asia","country":"United Arab Emirates","wikipedia":"Emirate of Sharjah","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi","person":"Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi","qid":"Q57164210","title":"ruler","office":null,"quote":"Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi, ruler (1868–1883)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Ajman","region":"Asia","country":"United Arab Emirates","wikipedia":"Emirate of Ajman","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi II","person":"Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi II","qid":"Q57728597","title":"ruler","office":null,"quote":"Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi II, ruler (1864–1891)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Umm Al Quwain","region":"Asia","country":"United Arab Emirates","wikipedia":"Umm Al Quwain","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Ahmad bin Abdullah Al Mualla","person":"Ahmad bin Abdullah Al Mualla","qid":"Q57418909","title":"ruler","office":null,"quote":"Ahmad bin Abdullah Al Mualla, ruler (1873–1904)"}]},{"state":"Sheikhdom of Ras Al Khaimah","region":"Asia","country":"United Arab Emirates","wikipedia":"Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Humaid bin Abdullah Al Qasimi","person":"Humaid bin Abdullah Al Qasimi","qid":"Q60785780","title":"ruler","office":null,"quote":"Humaid bin Abdullah Al Qasimi, ruler (1869–1900)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia","region":"Europe","country":"Croatia","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Franz Joseph","person":"Franz Joseph I","qid":"Q51056","title":"King","office":"Kings","quote":"Franz Joseph, King (1848–1916)"},{"name":"Ivan Mažuranić","person":"Ivan Mažuranić","qid":"Q453536","title":"Ban","office":"Bans","quote":"Ivan Mažuranić, Ban (1873–1880)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Greece","region":"Europe","country":"Greece","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Greece","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"George I","person":"George I of Greece","qid":"Q17142","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"George I, King (1863–1913)"},{"name":"Alexandros Koumoundouros","person":"Alexandros Koumoundouros","qid":"Q708318","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Alexandros Koumoundouros, Prime minister (1877–1878)"},{"name":"Charilaos Trikoupis","person":"Charilaos Trikoupis","qid":"Q197692","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Charilaos Trikoupis, Prime minister (1878)"},{"name":"Alexandros Koumoundouros","person":"Alexandros Koumoundouros","qid":"Q708318","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Alexandros Koumoundouros, Prime minister (1878–1880)"}]},{"state":"Principality of Serbia","region":"Europe","country":"Serbia","wikipedia":"Principality of Serbia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Jovan Ristić","person":"Jovan Ristić","qid":"Q391573","title":"President of the ministry","office":"Heads of government","quote":"Jovan Ristić, President of the ministry (1878–1880)"}]},{"state":"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland","region":"Europe","country":"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland","wikipedia":"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland","key":"United Kingdom","holders":[{"name":"Victoria","person":"Queen Victoria","qid":"Q9439","title":"Queen","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Victoria, Queen (1837–1901)"},{"name":"Benjamin Disraeli","person":"Benjamin Disraeli","qid":"Q82006","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Benjamin Disraeli, Prime minister (1874–1880)"}]},{"state":"German Empire","region":"Europe","country":"Germany Empire","wikipedia":"German Empire","key":"Germany","holders":[{"name":"William I","person":"William I, German Emperor","qid":"Q150652","title":"Emperor","office":"Emperor","quote":"William I, Emperor (1861–1888)"},{"name":"Otto von Bismarck","person":"Otto von Bismarck","qid":"Q8442","title":"Chancellor","office":"Chancellors","quote":"Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor (1871–1890)"}]},{"state":"Austria-Hungary: Archduchy/ Austrian Empire/ Kingdom of Hungary","region":"Europe","country":"Austria-Hungary","wikipedia":"Austria-Hungary","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Franz Joseph I","person":"Franz Joseph I","qid":"Q51056","title":"Emperor and King","office":"Archdukes/Emperors/ Kings (complete list, complete list)","quote":"Franz Joseph I, Emperor and King(1848–1916)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Bohemia","region":"Europe","country":"Bohemia","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Bohemia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Francis Joseph","person":"Franz Joseph I","qid":"Q51056","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Francis Joseph, King (1848–1916)"}]},{"state":"Liechtenstein","region":"Europe","country":"Liechtenstein","wikipedia":"Liechtenstein","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Johann II","person":"Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein","qid":"Q317016","title":"Prince","office":null,"quote":"Johann II, Prince (1858–1929)"}]},{"state":"Switzerland","region":"Europe","country":"Switzerland","wikipedia":"Switzerland","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Karl Schenk","person":"Karl Schenk","qid":"Q116992","title":"President of the Confederation","office":null,"quote":"Karl Schenk, President of the Confederation (1878)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Bavaria","region":"Europe","country":"Kingdom of Bavaria","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Bavaria","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Ludwig II","person":"Ludwig II of Bavaria","qid":"Q44039","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Ludwig II, King (1864–1886)"}]},{"state":"Grand Duchy of Oldenburg","region":"Europe","country":"Grand Duchy of Oldenburg","wikipedia":"Grand Duchy of Oldenburg","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Peter II","person":"Peter II, Grand Duke of Oldenburg","qid":"Q62139","title":"Grand Duke","office":null,"quote":"Peter II, Grand Duke (1853–1900)"}]},{"state":"Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont","region":"Europe","country":"Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont","wikipedia":"Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"George Victor","person":"George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont","qid":"Q62080","title":"Prince","office":null,"quote":"George Victor, Prince (1845–1893)"}]},{"state":"United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia/ Romanian United Principalities/ Romania","region":"Europe","country":"Romania","wikipedia":"United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Carol I","person":"Carol I of Romania","qid":"Q57146","title":"Domnitor","office":"Domnitors","quote":"Carol I, Domnitor (1866–1881)"},{"name":"Ion C. Brătianu","person":"Ion C. Brătianu","qid":"Q153047","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Ion C. Brătianu, Prime minister (1876–1881, 1881–1888)"}]},{"state":"Russian Empire","region":"Europe","country":"Russia","wikipedia":"Russian Empire","key":"Russia","holders":[{"name":"Alexander II","person":"Alexander II of Russia","qid":"Q83171","title":"Emperor","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Alexander II, Emperor (1855–1881)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria","region":"Europe","country":"Ukraine","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Francis Joseph I","person":"Franz Joseph I","qid":"Q51056","title":"King","office":null,"quote":"Francis Joseph I, King (1848–1916)"}]},{"state":"Denmark","region":"Europe","country":"Denmark","wikipedia":null,"key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Christian IX","person":"Christian IX","qid":"Q151305","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Christian IX, King (1863–1906)"},{"name":"Jacob Brønnum Scavenius Estrup","person":"Jacob Brønnum Scavenius Estrup","qid":"Q1343877","title":"Council president","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Jacob Brønnum Scavenius Estrup, Council president (1875–1894)"}]},{"state":"Sweden–Norway","region":"Europe","country":"Sweden–Norway","wikipedia":"Union between Sweden and Norway","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Oscar II","person":"Oscar II of Sweden","qid":"Q52924","title":"King","office":"Monarchs (complete list, complete list)","quote":"Oscar II, King (1872–1905)"},{"name":"Otto Richard Kierulf","person":"Otto Richard Kierulf","qid":"Q4933","title":"Prime minister","office":"Norwegian prime ministers in Stockholm","quote":"Otto Richard Kierulf, Prime minister (1873–1884)"},{"name":"Frederik Stang","person":"Frederik Stang","qid":"Q936096","title":"Prime minister","office":"Heads of government in Norway","quote":"Frederik Stang, Prime minister (1873–1880)"},{"name":"Louis Gerhard De Geer","person":"Louis Gerhard De Geer","qid":"Q52950","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers: Sweden","quote":"Louis Gerhard De Geer, Prime minister (1876–1880)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Italy","region":"Europe","country":"Italy","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Italy","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Victor Emmanuel II","person":"Victor Emmanuel II of Italy","qid":"Q168691","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Victor Emmanuel II, King (1861–1878)"},{"name":"Umberto I","person":"Umberto I of Italy","qid":"Q153688","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Umberto I, King (1878–1900)"},{"name":"Agostino Depretis","person":"Agostino Depretis","qid":"Q356711","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Agostino Depretis, Prime minister (1876–1878)"},{"name":"Benedetto Cairoli","person":"Benedetto Cairoli","qid":"Q284294","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Benedetto Cairoli, Prime minister (1878)"},{"name":"Agostino Depretis","person":"Agostino Depretis","qid":"Q356711","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Agostino Depretis, Prime minister (1878–1879)"}]},{"state":"San Marino","region":"Europe","country":"San Marino","wikipedia":"San Marino","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Domenico Fattori","person":"Domenico Fattori","qid":"Q1071091","title":"Captains Regent","office":"Captains Regent (1700–1900)","quote":"Domenico Fattori, Marino Babboni, Captains Regent (1878)"}]},{"state":"Papal States","region":"Europe","country":"Vatican City","wikipedia":"Papal States","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Pius IX","person":"Pope Pius IX","qid":"Q43720","title":"Pope","office":null,"quote":"Pius IX, Pope (1846–1878)"},{"name":"Leo XIII","person":"Pope Leo XIII","qid":"Q43922","title":"Pope","office":null,"quote":"Leo XIII, Pope (1878–1903)"}]},{"state":"Andorra","region":"Europe","country":"Andorra","wikipedia":"Andorra","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Josep Caixal i Estradé","person":"Josep Caixal i Estradé","qid":"Q330398","title":"Episcopal Co-Prince","office":"Episcopal Co-Princes","quote":"Josep Caixal i Estradé, Episcopal Co-Prince (1853–1879)"},{"name":"Patrice de Mac-Mahon","person":"Patrice de Mac-Mahon, Duke of Magenta","qid":"Q158838","title":"French Co-Prince","office":"French Co-Princes","quote":"Patrice de Mac-Mahon, French Co-Prince (1873–1879)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of Portugal","region":"Europe","country":"Portugal","wikipedia":"Kingdom of Portugal","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Luís I","person":"Luís I of Portugal","qid":"Q156175","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Luís I, King (1861–1889)"},{"name":"António José de Ávila","person":"António José de Ávila, 1st Duke of Ávila and Bolama","qid":"Q611078","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"António José de Ávila, Prime minister (1877–1878)"}]},{"state":"Bourbon Restoration of Spain","region":"Europe","country":"Spain","wikipedia":"Restoration (Spain)","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Alfonso XII","person":"Alfonso XII","qid":"Q32347","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Alfonso XII, King (1874–1885)"},{"name":"Antonio Cánovas del Castillo","person":"Antonio Cánovas del Castillo","qid":"Q336901","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, Prime minister (1875–1879)"}]},{"state":"Belgium","region":"Europe","country":"Belgium","wikipedia":null,"key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Leopold II","person":"Leopold II of Belgium","qid":"Q12967","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Leopold II, King (1865–1909)"},{"name":"Jules Malou","person":"Jules Malou","qid":"Q678535","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Jules Malou, Prime minister (1874–1878)"},{"name":"Walthère Frère-Orban","person":"Walthère Frère-Orban","qid":"Q705791","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Walthère Frère-Orban, Prime minister (1878–1884)"}]},{"state":"French Third Republic","region":"Europe","country":"France","wikipedia":"French Third Republic","key":"France","holders":[{"name":"Patrice de Mac-Mahon","person":"Patrice de Mac-Mahon, Duke of Magenta","qid":"Q158838","title":"President","office":"Presidents","quote":"Patrice de Mac-Mahon, President (1873–1879)"},{"name":"Jules Armand Dufaure","person":"Jules Armand Dufaure","qid":"Q182701","title":"President of the Council of ministers","office":"President of the Council of ministers","quote":"Jules Armand Dufaure, President of the Council of ministers (1877–1879)"}]},{"state":"Luxembourg","region":"Europe","country":"Luxembourg","wikipedia":"Luxembourg","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"William III","person":"William III of the Netherlands","qid":"Q125649","title":"Grand Duke","office":"Monarchs","quote":"William III, Grand Duke (1849–1890)"},{"name":"Félix de Blochausen","person":"Félix de Blochausen","qid":"Q641102","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Félix de Blochausen, Prime minister (1874–1885)"}]},{"state":"Monaco","region":"Europe","country":"Monaco","wikipedia":"Monaco","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Charles III","person":"Charles III, Prince of Monaco","qid":"Q382433","title":"Prince","office":null,"quote":"Charles III, Prince (1856–1889)"}]},{"state":"Kingdom of the Netherlands","region":"Europe","country":"Netherlands","wikipedia":"Kingdom of the Netherlands","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"William III","person":"William III of the Netherlands","qid":"Q125649","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"William III, King (1849–1890)"},{"name":"Jan Kappeyne van de Coppello","person":"Jan Kappeyne van de Coppello","qid":"Q592540","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Jan Kappeyne van de Coppello, Prime minister (1877–1879)"}]},{"state":"Kings of Uvea (Wallis)","region":"Oceania","country":"French Polynesia","wikipedia":"List of kings of Uvea","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Amelia Tokagahahau Aliki","person":"Amelia Tokagahahau Aliki","qid":"Q4742313","title":"Queen","office":null,"quote":"Amelia Tokagahahau Aliki, Queen (1869–1895)"}]},{"state":"Malietoa dynasty","region":"Oceania","country":"Samoa and American Samoa","wikipedia":"Malietoa","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Malietoa Talavou Tonumaipe'a","person":"Malietoa Talavou Tonumaipe’a","qid":"Q6743485","title":"Malietoa","office":null,"quote":"Malietoa Talavou Tonumaipe'a, Malietoa (1869–1880)"}]},{"state":"Tuʻi Kanokupolu of Tonga","region":"Oceania","country":"Tonga","wikipedia":"Tuʻi Kanokupolu","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"George Tupou I/ Tāufaʻāhau","person":"George Tupou I","qid":"Q379840","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"George Tupou I/ Tāufaʻāhau, King (1845–1893)"},{"name":"Tēvita ʻUnga","person":"Tēvita ʻUnga","qid":"Q3519296","title":"Prime minister","office":"Prime ministers","quote":"Tēvita ʻUnga, Prime minister (1872–1879)"}]},{"state":"Hawaiian Kingdom","region":"Oceania","country":"United States","wikipedia":"Hawaiian Kingdom","key":null,"holders":[{"name":"Kalākaua","person":"Kalākaua","qid":"Q163080","title":"King","office":"Monarchs","quote":"Kalākaua, King (1874–1891)"}]}],"source":{"name":"Wikipedia","title":"List of state leaders in the 19th century (1851–1900)","revid":1370561602,"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1370561602","license":"CC BY-SA 4.0","retrieved":"2026-10-22"},"checked":"Each holder is quoted from the list and kept for this year only where the person's own Wikidata record holds the same post over the same term, to within a year."},"births":[{"text":"Joseph Stalin, Soviet statesman.","person":"Joseph Stalin","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1360295501#Births","title":"1878 in Russia","revid":1360295501}},{"text":"February 8 – Martin Buber, Austrian philosopher (d. 1965)","person":"February 8","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365252865#Births","title":"1878","revid":1365252865}},{"text":"12 March – Mary Sophia Allen, women's rights activist (died 1964)","person":"12 March","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1337683057#Births","title":"1878 in Wales","revid":1337683057}},{"text":"March 31 – Jack Johnson, boxer (died 1946)","person":"Jack Johnson","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1362045589#Births","title":"1878 in the United States","revid":1362045589}},{"text":"January 6 – Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (d. 1967)","person":"January 6","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365252865#Births","title":"1878","revid":1365252865}},{"text":"4 January – Gerdt von Bassewitz, German playwright and actor (died 1923)","person":"4 January","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1331892396#Births","title":"1878 in Germany","revid":1331892396}},{"text":"16 March – Clemens August Graf von Galen, German bishop of Roman-Catholic Church (died 1946)","person":"16 March","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1331892396#Births","title":"1878 in Germany","revid":1331892396}},{"text":"January 8 – Shaikh Shahid Husain, Indian Barrister and the father of novelist Attia Hosain and Air Commodore FS Hussain (d. 1924)","person":"January 8","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365252865#Births","title":"1878","revid":1365252865}},{"text":"November 23 – Ernest Joseph King, Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations (COMINCH-CNO) during World War II (d. 1956)","person":"Ernest Joseph King","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365252865#Births","title":"1878","revid":1365252865}},{"text":"November 23 – Ernest King, Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations (COMINCH-CNO) during World War II (died 1956)","person":"Ernest King","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1362045589#Births","title":"1878 in the United States","revid":1362045589}},{"text":"May 10 – Gustav Stresemann, Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1929)","person":"May 10","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365252865#Births","title":"1878","revid":1365252865}},{"text":"10 May – Gustav Stresemann, Chancellor 1923, Foreign Minister 1923–29, Nobel laureate (died 1929)","person":"10 May","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1331892396#Births","title":"1878 in Germany","revid":1331892396}},{"text":"15 March – Thomas Richards, historian and librarian (died 1962)","person":"15 March","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1337683057#Births","title":"1878 in Wales","revid":1337683057}},{"text":"November 7 – Lise Meitner, German-Austrian physicist, discoverer of nuclear fission (d. 1968)","person":"Lise Meitner","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1365252865#Births","title":"1878","revid":1365252865}},{"text":"10 December – C. Rajagopalachari, Indian politician and freedom-fighter. (d. 1972)","person":"C. Rajagopalachari","cite":{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1319049181#Births","title":"1878 in India","revid":1319049181}}]}