slug: achaemenid-empire

label: Achaemenid Empire

description: Iranian (Persian) empire (550–330 BC)

year_label: 600 BCE

section: Births

text: Cyrus the Great, king of Persia (or 576 BC)

title: 600 BC

year_label: 570 BCE

text: The Satrapy of Armenia is established as a province of the Achaemenid Empire. This is the first polity to bear the name Armenia.

title: 570 BC

section: Events

year_label: 550 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Cyrus II the Great overthrows Astyages of the Medes, establishing the Achaemenid Empire.

title: 550 BC

year_label: 546 BCE

text: Cyrus establishes a garrison in Sardis and incorporates the Greek cities of Ionia in Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire.

title: 546 BC

year_label: 540 BCE

text: Persians conquer Lycian city of Xanthos (approximate date).

title: 540 BC

year_label: 539 BCE

date: September 25

text: September 25–28? – Battle of Opis: Troops of the Persian Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great decisively defeat those of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

title: 539 BC

section: Events › By place › Near East

year_label: 525 BCE

text: Battle of Pelusium - Cambyses II of Persia conquers Egypt by painting cats and other animals sacred to the Egyptians on his soldiers' shields. The Egyptians run in fear of "harming" these animals. It is said that after the battle, Cambyses hurled cats in the faces of the Egyptians in scorn that they would sacrifice their country for the safety of their animals.

title: 525 BC

section: Events › By place › Egypt

year_label: 522 BCE

text: Babylon rebels against Persian rule.

title: 522 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian Empire

date: July

text: July – Cambyses II, ruler of ancient Persia

title: 522 BC

date: September 29

text: 29 September – Bardiya, ruler of ancient Persia

title: 522 BC

year_label: 519 BCE

text: Xerxes I of Persia, fourth king of Persia (or 518 BC) (d. 465 BC)

title: 519 BC

year_label: 518 BCE

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Darius I begins constructing Persepolis, a new capital for the Persian Empire (approximate date).

title: 518 BC

section: Events › By topic › Architecture

year_label: 516 BCE

text: Cleomenes I of Sparta receives an embassy from Maeandrius of Samos asking for help to expel the tyrant Syloson, a puppet of the Persian Empire, which is at the time subjugating the city-states of the eastern Aegean Sea.

title: 516 BC

year_label: 507 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Athenians send an embassy to the Achaemenid satrap of Asia Minor - in the capital city of Sardis - for help in defending against Spartan threats, but refuse to accept Persian terms, which demanded the return of Hippias' tyranny.

title: 507 BC

year_label: 500 BCE

text: Darius I of Persia proclaims that Aramaic will be the official language of the western half of his empire.

title: 500 BC

section: Events › By place › Middle East

year_label: 499 BCE

text: After a failed attack on the rebellious island of Naxos in c. 501 BC (on behalf of the Persians), Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, to save himself from the wrath of Persia, plans a revolt with the Milesians and the other Ionians. With the encouragement of Histiaeus (his father-in-law and former tyrant of Miletus), Aristagoras induces the Ionian cities of Asia Minor to revolt against Persia, thus instigating the Ionian Revolt and beginning the Greco-Persian Wars between Greece and Persia. The pro-Persian tyrant of Mytilene is stoned to death.

title: 499 BC

year_label: 497 BCE

text: The Persians launch an expedition on the Hellespont and later Caria.

title: 497 BC

year_label: 494 BCE

text: Having successfully captured several of the revolting Greek city-states, the Persians under Artaphernes lay siege to Miletus. The decisive Battle of Lade is fought at the island of Lade, near Miletus' port. Although out-numbered, the Greek fleet appears to be winning the battle until the ships from Samos and Lesbos retreat. The sudden defection turns the tide of battle, and the remaining Greek fleet is completely destroyed. Miletus surrenders shortly thereafter, and the Ionian Revolt comes to an end.

title: 494 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian empire

year_label: 493 BCE

text: A Phoenician-manned Persian fleet restores Persian control of Cyprus.

title: 493 BC

year_label: 491 BCE

text: The Greek city of Aegina, fearing the loss of trade, submits to Persia. The Spartan king, Cleomenes I tries to punish Aegina for its submission to the Persians, but the other Spartan king, Demaratus, thwarts him.

title: 491 BC

year_label: 490 BCE

text: When the Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor rebelled against Persia in 499 BC, Eretria joined Athens in sending aid to the rebels. As a result, Darius makes a point of punishing Eretria during his invasion of Greece. The city is sacked and burned and its inhabitants are enslaved. He intends the same fate for Athens.

title: 490 BC

year_label: 486 BCE

text: Egypt revolts against Persian rule upon the death of king Darius I. The revolts, probably led by Libyans of the western Delta, are crushed the next year by Xerxes, who reduces Egypt to the status of a conquered province.

title: 486 BC

text: Darius I, king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (b. 550 BCE)

title: 486 BC

year_label: 484 BCE

text: Xerxes I quells the Egyptian revolt against Persian rule. He ravages the Delta region in the process and then appoints his brother Achaemenes satrap (governor) of Egypt.

title: 484 BC

year_label: 481 BCE

text: The Persian King Xerxes I arrives at Sardis and begins to build up his great army and navy for the invasion of Greece. Egypt contributes 481 ships.

title: 481 BC

year_label: 480 BCE

text: An eclipse of the sun discourages the Greek army from following up the victory of Salamis. Xerxes returns to Persia leaving behind an army under Mardonius, which winters in Thessaly.

title: 480 BC

text: Breaking through the pass at Thermopylae from Macedonia into Greece, the Persians occupy Attica.

title: 480 BC

text: Phocis and the coasts of Euboea are devastated by the Persians. Thebes and most of Boeotia join Xerxes.

title: 480 BC

text: The Athenian soldier and statesman, Aristides, as well as the former Athenian archon Xanthippus, return from banishment in Aegina to serve under Themistocles against the Persians.

title: 480 BC

date: August

text: August – The Persians achieve a naval victory over the Greeks in an engagement fought near Artemisium, a promontory on the north coast of Euboea. The Greek fleet holds its own against the Persians in three days of fighting but withdraws southward when news comes of the defeat at Thermopylae.

title: 480 BC

date: August 20

text: August 20 or September 8-10 – The Battle of Thermopylae ends in victory for the Persians under Xerxes. His army engulfs a force of 300 Spartans and 700 Thespiae under the Spartan King, Leonidas I. The Greeks under Leonidas resist the advance through Thermopylae of Xerxes' vast army. For two days Leonidas and his troops withstand the Persian attacks; he then orders most of his troops to retreat, and he and his 300-member royal guard fight to the last man.

title: 480 BC

text: September 21 – The Persians sack Athens, whose citizens flee to Salamis and then Peloponnesus.

title: 480 BC

text: The Persian commander Mardonius, now based in Thessaly, wins support from Argus and western Arcadia. He tries to win over Athens, but fails.

title: 479 BC

text: August 27: Mardonius, Persian general (killed in the Battle of Plataea)

title: 479 BC

text: The Spartan co-ruler Leotychides and the Athenian leader Themistocles lead a fleet and army to reoccupy northern Greece and to punish the aristocratic family of the Aleuads for having aided the Persians. Leotychides is caught accepting a bribe during the operations in Thessaly.

title: 477 BC

text: Cimon of Athens increases his power at the expense of Themistocles. He ousts Pausanias and the Spartans from the area around the Bosporus. The Spartans, hearing that Pausanias is intriguing with the Persians, recall him and he is "disciplined".

title: 476 BC

text: Themistocles, after being exiled from Athens, makes his way across the Aegean to Magnesia, an inland Ionian city under Persian rule.

title: 469 BC

text: King Xerxes I of the Persian Empire, together with his eldest son, is murdered by one of his Ministers, Artabanus the Hyrcanian. The Persian general, Megabyzus, is thought to have been one of the conspirators in the assassination.

title: 465 BC

text: Xerxes I, king of Persia (murdered) (b. c. 519 BC)

title: 465 BC

text: Egypt seizes the opportunity created by the murder of Xerxes I to revolt against Persia. The revolt is led by Inaros, a Libyan, who gains control of the Delta region and is aided by the Athenians.

title: 464 BC

text: Themistocles, who is in exile, approaches the Persian King Artaxerxes I seeking Persian help in regaining power in Athens. Artaxerxes is unwilling to help him, but gives him the satrapy of Magnesia.

title: 463 BC

text: Egypt revolts against Persian rule. The Egyptian leader, Inaros, asks Athens for assistance, which is willingly provided as Athens has plans to trade with and colonize Egypt. A force of 200 Athenian triremes, which is campaigning in Cyprus, is immediately ordered to Egypt to render assistance.

title: 460 BC

text: The Athenians suffer a severe defeat in Egypt at the hands of the Persians. After being cut off in the Nile Delta, the Athenian fleet is defeated, and the Athenian army retreats across the Sinai Desert to Byblos before its remnants are rescued. The Egyptian rebel Inaros is crucified by the Persians. The Athenians decide against any further military activity in Egypt.

title: 455 BC

text: Persian rule in Egypt is finally restored by Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, after a prolonged struggle which has included dealing with a military intervention by Athens. The leader of the revolt, Inaros II, is crucified by the Persians.

title: 454 BC

text: Pericles declares that the Delian League's considerable treasury at Delos is not safe from the Persian navy and has the treasury transferred to Athens, thus strengthening Athens' power over the League.

title: 454 BC

text: The Persian fleet moves against a rebellious Cyprus to restore order. Kimon, who returns to favour, though not to power, in Athens, plans an expedition to help Cyprus. He gains Pericles' support.

title: 451 BC

text: Athenian general Cimon sails to Cyprus with two hundred triremes of the Delian League. From there, he sends sixty ships to Egypt to help the Egyptians under Amyrtaeus, who are fighting the Persians in the Nile Delta. Cimon uses the remaining ships to aid an uprising of the Cypriot Greek city-states against Persian control of the island. He lays siege to the Persian stronghold of Citium on the southern west coast of Cyprus. However, the siege fails and Cyprus remains under Phoenician (and Persian) control.

title: 450 BC

text: The Greek city-states make peace with the Persian Empire through the Peace of Callias, named after Callias II, the chief Greek ambassador to the Persian Court, an Athenian who is a brother-in-law of Cimon. Athens agrees to end its support for the Egyptian rebels still holding out in parts of the Nile Delta, while the Persians agree not to send ships of war into the Aegean Sea. Athens now effectively controls all the Greek city states in Ionia.

title: 449 BC

text: As a result of Persian assistance to Samos, it takes the Athenian army nine months to successfully complete its siege of Samos and force the Samians to surrender. Samos becomes a tributary of Athens.

title: 439 BC

text: Artaxerxes II, king of Persia (approximate date) (d. 358 BC)

title: 436 BC

text: A Theban raid on Plataea, the only pro-Athenian city in Boeotia, is a failure and the Plataeans take 180 prisoners and put them to death. Athens supports Plataea while Sparta aligns itself with Thebes. Sparta enlists the help of the Greek cities in Italy and Sicily. Both Sparta and Athens appeal to Persia, but without result.

title: 431 BC

text: Xerxes II rules as King of Persia for only about 45 days until he is killed. He is reportedly murdered, while drunk, by Pharnacyas and Menostanes on the orders of Sogdianus, the son of one of Artaxerxes I's concubines, Alogyne of Babylon.

title: 424 BC

text: Sogdianus, King of Persia (assassinated)

title: 423 BC

text: Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap of Lydia and Caria, forms an alliance with Sparta. The Spartans, with strategic advice from Alcibiades and limited assistance from the Persians under Pharnabazus, advance almost to the gates of Athens. King Agis II leads the Spartan force that occupies Decelea in Attica.

title: 413 BC

text: Alcibiades helps stir up revolts amongst Athens' allies in Ionia, on the west coast of Asia Minor. However, Alcibiades loses the confidence of the Spartans and antagonises their king Agis II. As a result, he flees to the court of the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Alcibiades advises Tissaphernes to withdraw his support from Sparta while conspiring with the oligarchic party in Athens, as Sparta's allied cities break away in a series of revolts.

title: 412 BC

text: The Persians under Darius II see their opportunity to play off one Greek city-state against another and to recover control of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, which have been under Athenian control since 449 BC. The satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, are ordered to collect overdue tribute.

title: 412 BC

text: Commanding 20 ships, the Athenian generals Theramenes and Thrasybulus collaborate with Alcibiades and the main Athenian fleet in inflicting a major defeat on the Spartan navy commanded by Mindarus and its supporting Persian land army near Cyzicus on the shore of the Propontis (Sea of Marmara). As a result of its victory in the Battle of Cyzicus, Athens regains control over the vital grain route from the Black Sea.

title: 410 BC

text: The Athenian general, Thrasyllus, sails out from Athens with a sizable force to campaign in Ionia. There, he quickly captures Colophon and raids the Ionian countryside, but is defeated outside Ephesus by a combined Ephesian, Persian, and Syracusan force.

title: 409 BC

text: King Darius II of Persia decides to continue the war against Athens and give support to the Spartans. His wife, Parysatis, persuades him to appoint his younger son, Cyrus, as satrap (governor) of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia and commander in chief of the Achaemenian forces in Asia Minor in place of Tissaphernes.

title: 408 BC

text: The Spartan admiral Lysander refuses to be lured out of Ephesus to do battle with Alcibiades. However, while Alcibiades is away seeking supplies, the Athenian squadron is placed under the command of Antiochus, his helmsman, who is routed by the Spartan fleet (with the help of the Persians under Cyrus) in the Battle of Notium (or Ephesus).

title: 407 BC

text: Theramenes secures terms that save the city of Athens from destruction. The Spartans allow Athens to retain its independence. However, Athens loses all its foreign possessions and what is left of its fleet and is required to become an ally of Sparta. The Long Walls around Athens are pulled down. Greek towns across the Aegean Sea in Ionia are again the subjects of the Persian Empire.

title: 404 BC

text: Amyrtaeus of Sais successfully leads a revolt against the Persian Empire's control of the Egyptian delta. He becomes the first (and only) pharaoh of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty.

title: 404 BC

text: Artaxerxes II, king of Persia, appoints Tissaphernes to take over all the districts in Asia Minor over which Artaxerxes II's brother Cyrus had been governor before his revolt.

title: 400 BC

text: Agesilaus II, the King of Sparta, campaigns successfully in Asia Minor against the Persian satraps Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes and inflicts a major defeat on Tissaphernes at Sardis. Agesilaus agrees to a three months' truce with the Persians under Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria. Negotiations conducted during that time prove fruitless, and on its termination, Agesilaus raids Phrygia, where he easily captures an immense amount of booty, since Tissaphernes has concentrated his troops in Caria.

title: 396 BC

text: The Persians assemble a joint Phoenician, Cilician, and Cypriot fleet, under the command of the experienced Athenian admiral, Conon, and seize Rhodes.

title: 396 BC

text: The "Corinthian War" begins, with Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos (with the backing of Persia) against Sparta. The Spartans prepare to send out an army against this new alliance, and order Agesilaus to return to Greece. Agesilaus sets out for Sparta with his troops, crossing the Hellespont and marching west through Thrace.

title: 395 BC

text: The Persian satrap Tissaphernes' enemy Parysatis, mother of Cyrus, succeeds in persuading Persian King Artaxerxes II to have him executed at Colossae, Phrygia (now Turkey). Parysatis cannot forgive Tissaphernes for the rough treatment he has handed out to her favourite son, the late Cyrus.

title: 395 BC

text: The Athenian general Conon, the Persian satrap Pharnabazus and Evagoras, King of Salamis, win an overwhelming naval victory over the Spartans under Peisander in the Battle of Cnidus (near Rhodes). Following this victory, Conon and Pharnabazus sail along the coast of Ionia, expelling Spartan governors and garrisons from the cities, although they fail to reduce the Spartan bases at Abydos and Sestos. With the Spartan bid for building an empire crumbling, Persia gains mastery of the Aegean.

title: 394 BC

text: The Athenian general Conon and the Persian satrap Pharnabazus sail to mainland Greece, where they raid the coast of Laconia and seize the island of Cythera, where they leave a garrison and an Athenian governor.

title: 393 BC

text: The Persian general, Struthas is dispatched by King Artaxerxes II to take command of the satrapy of Sardis, replacing Tiribazus, and to pursue an anti-Spartan policy.

title: 392 BC

text: During the Corinthian War, the Spartans dispatch an ambassador, Antalcidas, to the Persian satrap Tiribazus, hoping to turn the Persians against the allies by informing them of Conon's use of the Persian fleet to begin rebuilding the Athenian empire. Learning of this, the Athenians send an embassy led by Conon to present their case to the Persians at Sardis. Alarmed by Conon's actions, Tiribazus arrests him, and secretly provides the Spartans with money to equip a fleet. Although Conon quickly escapes, he dies in Cyprus without returning to Athens.

title: 392 BC

text: The Persian satrap, Struthas, pursues an anti-Spartan policy, prompting the Spartans to order Thibron, their governor, to the Greek cities of Ionia to attack him. Thibron successfully ravages Persian territory for a time, but is killed, along with a number of his men, when Struthas ambushes them.

title: 391 BC

text: Concerned about the revival of Athenian imperialist ambitions, the Persian King Artaxerxes II and King Agesilaus II of Sparta enter into an alliance. Sparta also seeks and gains the support of Dionysius I of Syracuse.

title: 388 BC

text: Freed from Spartan attacks by the Peace of Antalcidas ("King's Peace") of the previous year, Persia turns to quieting Cyprus and Egypt. Owing to the skill of King Evagoras of Cyprus and of Egypt's Greek mercenary general Chabrias, these wars drag on for the rest of the decade.

title: 386 BC

text: Lysias, the Athenian orator, on the occasion of the Olympiad, rebukes the Greeks for allowing themselves to be dominated by the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius I and by the barbarian Persians.

title: 384 BC

text: Persia forces the Athenians to withdraw their general Chabrias from Egypt. Chabrias has been successfully supporting the Egyptian Pharaohs in maintaining their independence from the Persian Empire.

title: 380 BC

text: Darius III, king of (Achaemenid) Persia (approximate date)

title: 380 BC

text: Mausolus is appointed as the Persian satrap of Caria.

title: 377 BC

text: The Persian King Artaxerxes II launches an invasion of Egypt to bring that country back under Persian rule. The invasion is led by Pharnabazus. After initial successes, the Greek mercenaries fighting for the Persians push on towards Memphis. However, King Nectanebo I is able to gather his forces and repulse the Persian invasion.

title: 373 BC

text: Athens does not welcome the Theban victory, fearing the rising aggressiveness of Thebes. After the Theban victory, the old alliance between the Persians and the Thebans is restored.

title: 371 BC

text: Theban leader Pelopidas goes on an embassy to the Persian king Artaxerxes II and induces him to propose a settlement of the Greek states' disputes according to the wishes of the Thebans. Artaxerxes II issues an edict consisting of peace terms for the Greeks, but his edict is not obeyed by any of the Greek states.

title: 367 BC

text: In Persia, a number of satraps of King Artaxerxes II begin a revolt, in alliance with Athens, Sparta, and Egypt, that lasts until 358 BC.

title: 366 BC

text: The Athenian forces under general Timotheus overrun Samos, then occupied by a Persian garrison, after a 10-month siege.

title: 365 BC

text: The Egyptian pharaoh Teos (or Tachos) succeeds his father Nectanebo I to the throne. Planning a great attack on Persia, he invites Sparta to help him.

title: 363 BC

text: King Agesilaus II of Sparta arrives with 1,000 men to assist Egypt in its fight with Persia.

title: 362 BC

text: Mausolus of Caria joins the revolt of the satraps of Anatolia against the Persian king Artaxerxes II.

title: 362 BC

text: With the Persian empire weakening, revolts occur in many parts of the empire, including Sidon, a prosperous and rich Phoenician city.

title: 361 BC

text: With the help of King Agesilaus II of Sparta, Nectanebo II deposes Teos and becomes king of Egypt. Teos flees to Susa and makes peace with the Persians. Nectanebo II pays the Spartans 230 talents for their help.

title: 360 BC

text: Artaxerxes III ("Ochus") succeeds Artaxerxes II as King of Persia and restores central authority over the Persian empire's satraps. To secure his throne he puts to death most of his relatives.

title: 358 BC

text: Artaxerxes II, King of Persia (b. c. 436 BC)

title: 358 BC

text: Rhodes falls to the Persian satrap Mausolus of Halicarnassus.

title: 357 BC

text: King Artaxerxes III of Persia forces Athens to conclude a peace which requires the city to leave Asia Minor and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.

title: 355 BC

text: Mausolus, King and Persian satrap of Caria, dies and is succeeded in 352 BC by Artemisia, his sister and wife.

title: 353 BC

text: Mausolus, King and Persian satrap of Caria

title: 353 BC

text: Encouraged by a failed effort at invasion of Egypt by King Artaxerxes III, Phoenicia and Cyprus revolt against Persia.

title: 351 BC

text: Sidon, the centre of the revolt against Persia, seeks help from its sister city of Tyre and from Egypt but gets very little.

title: 350 BC

text: Sidon is besieged by Persian forces. The Persian Empire reasserted its dominance over Egypt after Nectanebo II was forced to flee following the Persian military campaign under Artaxerxes III. The native Egyptian rule briefly came to an end, and the Persians regained control. This was just a precursor to the later events that would lead to Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt in the early 4th century BCE, ultimately ending Persian rule and ushering in the Hellenistic period.

title: 349 BC

text: After being besieged by the Persian forces of King Artaxerxes III, Sidon is taken and its population is punished with great cruelty.

title: 348 BC

text: Philip II of Macedon besieges Perinthus, which had defied him and was inclining towards his opponents the Athenians, the Perinthian's allies Byzantium and the Achaemenid Empire support Perinthus in their defence of the city.

title: 344 BC

text: The king of Caria, Idrieus, dies, leaving the Persian satrapy, by his will, to his sister Ada, to whom he was married.

title: 344 BC

text: The King of Persia, Artaxerxes III, personally leads the Persian forces invading Egypt. The Persians are keen to access Egypt's gold and corn supplies. The town of Pelusium in the Nile Delta puts up resistance, but Pharaoh Nectanebo II is forced to retreat to Memphis. As the situation deteriorates, Nectanebo II leaves for exile in Nubia. His departure marks the end of the 30th Dynasty, the last native house to rule Egypt.

title: 343 BC

text: Rhodes falls to Persian forces.

title: 340 BC

text: The Persian general and vizier, the eunuch Bagoas, falls out of favour with King Artaxerxes III. Bagoas seeks to remain in office by replacing Artaxerxes with his youngest son Arses, whom he thinks will be easier to control. So Bagoas murders Artaxerxes III and all his sons, other than Arses, who is then placed on the throne by Bagoas. Artaxerxes IV Arses is little more than a puppet-king while Bagoas acts as the power behind the throne.

title: 338 BC

text: Artaxerxes III, king of Persia (murdered) (b. c. 425 BC)

title: 338 BC

text: Alexander puts down a rebellion in Macedonia and crushes the rebellious Illyrians. He then appears at the gates of Thebes and receives the city's submission. After that he advances to the Corinthian isthmus and is elected by the assembled Greeks as their commander against Persia.

title: 336 BC

text: The young king of Persia, Arses, objects to being controlled by Bagoas and attempts to poison him. Instead, Arses and all his children are killed by Bagoas.

title: 336 BC

text: After conquering Thebes, Alexander demands the surrender of the mercenary commanders, Chares and Charidemus, among others. Chares escapes to the Troad while Charidemus is banished and flees to Persia.

title: 335 BC

text: May – Alexander wins a major victory against the Persians commanded by the Greek mercenary Memnon of Rhodes, in the Battle of the Granicus near the Sea of Marmara. A large number of King Darius III's Greek mercenaries are massacred, but 2,000 survivors are sent back to Macedonia in chains.

title: 334 BC

text: King Darius III of Persia executes Charidemus, a Greek mercenary leader living in exile in Persia, for criticising preparations taken for the Battle of Issus.

title: 333 BC

text: The Persian King Darius III twice sends on horseback to Alexander letters of friendship. The second time he offers a large ransom for his family, the ceding of all of the Persian Empire west of the Euphrates River, and the hand of his daughter in return for an alliance. Alexander rejects both letters and marches into Mesopotamia.

title: 332 BC

text: Alexander conquers Egypt from the Persians. The Egyptians welcome him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrenders. Alexander's conquest of Egypt completes his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast.

title: 332 BC

text: October 1 – Alexander is victorious in the Battle of Gaugamela (near ancient Ninevah) over the Persian King Darius III. Alexander pursues the defeated Persian forces to Arbela, Darius moves his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media.

title: 331 BC

text: Darius III, king of Persia, was killed in Bactria (b. c. 380 BC)

title: 330 BC

text: January 20 – Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, led by satrap Ariobarzanes, at the Persian Gates. In this battle, Ariobarzan, supported by only 700 Persian Immortals, holds the vast Macedonian army of 17,000 men at bay for 30 days. At the end, his troops are surrounded by Alexander's army, because of a Persian shepherd, who leads it around the Persian defenses. However, instead of surrendering, Ariobarzan and his 700 Immortals fight to the last man. Some historians consider him to be the Leonidas of Persia.

title: 330 BC

text: In Bactria, Bessus raises a national revolt in the eastern satrapies using the title of King Artaxerxes V of Persia.

title: 329 BC

text: While at Susa, Alexander holds a feast to celebrate his capture of the Persian Empire.

title: 324 BC

text: On returning to Susa, Persia, Alexander the Great punishes those who he considers to have failed in their duties in his absence in India, particularly those who have plundered tombs and temples. Alexander continues his policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors. Over a third of his satraps are replaced and six are put to death. Three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who died in 326 BC), are accused of extortion and are arrested, tried and executed.

title: 324 BC

text: June 13 – Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire died in Babylon (b. 356 BC)

title: 323 BC

text: Ariarathes I of Cappadocia, Achaemenid satrap, founder of the Iranian Ariarathid dynasty

title: 322 BC

text: Seleucus, former officer of Alexander the Great, considers himself emperor of Persia. He attempts to recover lands taken by Chandragupta that had been a part of Alexander's Empire. Seleucus establishes Seleucia on the Tigris River as his capital.

title: 305 BC

text: Quintus Labienus occupies Cilicia and marches, with an army, into Anatolia. Most cities surrender without resistance, except for Alabanda and Mylasa. The Parthians restore their territory to nearly the limits of the old Achaemenid Empire. Labienus proclaims himself "Parthian Emperor" of Asia Minor.

title: 40 BC


slug: acre-israel

label: Acre, Israel

description: city in Israel

year_label: 312 BCE

text: Demetrius rallies the remnants of his army at Tripolis and summons reinforcements from the garrisons of upper Syria and Cilicia; he also writes his father, Antigonus, and urges him to send help. Meanwhile Ptolemy captures Acre, Joppa, Samaria and Sidon, and starts to besiege Tyre.

title: 312 BC

section: Events › By place › Syria/Mesopotamia/Babylonia

year_label: 219 BCE

text: Following the defection of one of Ptolemy IV's leading commanders, Egypt's Syrian territories are seriously threatened by Antiochus III, thus initiating the Fourth Syrian War. When the Seleucid ruler captures the important eastern Mediterranean sea ports of Seleucia-in-Pieria, Tyre, and Ptolemais, Ptolemy IV's advisor, Sosibius, and the Ptolemaic court enter into delaying negotiations with the enemy, while the Ptolemaic army is reorganized and intensively drilled.

title: 219 BC

year_label: 153 BCE

text: As a result of the rise of the pretender, Alexander Balas, Demetrius I Soter is forced to recall most of his garrisons in Judea. To retain control of Judea, he makes a bid to gain the loyalty of Jonathan Maccabeus, whom he permits to recruit an army and to take back the hostages that the Syrians are holding in the city of Acre. Jonathan gladly accepts these terms, takes up residence in Jerusalem and begins to fortify the city, becoming High Priest of Jerusalem until 143 BC.

title: 153 BC

section: Events › By place › Seleucid Empire

section: Climate & Environment

text: 881 Acre earthquake: It takes place in the vicinity of Acre. Alexandria is reportedly affected by the same earthquake.

title: 881

section: Events › By place › Asia

date: May 26

text: May 26 – King Baldwin I captures Acre, the port is besieged from April, and blockaded by the Genoese and Pisan fleet. Baldwin promises a free passage to those who want to move to Ascalon, but the Italian sailors plunder the wealthy Muslim emigrants and kill many of them.

title: 1104

section: Events › By place › Levant

date: April 10

text: April 10 – The Crusaders fight their way back to Acre (modern Israel).

title: 1112

date: April 18

text: April 18 – King Baldwin II of Jerusalem is captured by Turkish forces under Belek Ghazi – while preparing to practice falconry near Gargar on the Euphrates. Most of the Crusader army is massacred, and Baldwin is taken to the castle at Kharput. To save the situation the Venetians are asked to help. Doge Domenico Michiel lifts the siege of Corfu (see 1122) and takes his fleet to Acre, arriving at the port in the end of May.

title: 1123

section: Events › By date › April–June

section: Deaths

date: November 13

text: November 13 – King Fulk of Jerusalem dies after a hunting accident in Acre. He is succeeded by his 13-year-old son Baldwin III – who is crowned as co-ruler alongside his mother, Queen Melisende on Christmas Day. Due to the political situation the Crusader States of Tripoli, Antioch and Edessa assert their independence. Raymond of Antioch demands the return of Cilicia to his principality and invades the province.

title: 1143

date: April

text: April – Southern French crusaders under Alfonso Jordan of Toulouse arrive by sea at Acre. Alfonso dies suddenly at Caesarea, resulting in the accusation that he has been poisoned by Count Raymond II of Tripoli. Most of the Provençal forces turn back and return home. Meanwhile, an unknown proportion of northern European naval crusaders (from England and Germany) arrive at Acre.

title: 1148

section: Events › By place › Second Crusade

text: Spring – A Zangid expedition under General Shirkuh accompanied by his nephew Saladin invades Egypt. King Amalric I of Jerusalem orders his fleet to return to Acre and retreats with the Crusaders back to Palestine.

title: 1169

text: August – Saladin sends an Egyptian fleet to blockade Beirut and leads his forces in the Bekaa Valley. The city is strongly fortified and Baldwin IV rushes with his army up from Galilee – only pausing to collect the ships that lay in the harbors of Acre and Tyre. Failing to take Beirut by assault before the Crusaders arrived, Saladin breaks off the siege and withdraws.

title: 1182

text: Summer – Egyptian troops led by Saladin begins a campaign that paves the way for further Muslim inroads into Christian territory. Al-Adil invades Palestine with the Egyptian army, and captures the strategic castle of Mirabel (Majdal Yaba). By mid-September, Saladin has captured the cities of Acre, Jaffa, Gaza and Ascalon (blockaded by the Egyptian fleet), along with some 50 Crusader castles.

title: 1187

date: August 28

text: August 28 – Siege of Acre: King Guy of Lusignan moves from Tyre, where Conrad of Montferrat refuses to hand over the city. Guy and his crusader army (some 7,000 men, including 400 knights) besiege Acre. He makes camp outside, to wait for more reinforcements.

title: 1189

date: March 25

text: March 25 – Conrad of Montferrat sails south with a Crusader fleet (some 50 ships) from Tyre. As Conrad's fleet approaches the harbour of Acre, an equally sized Muslim fleet sorties out to meet the Crusaders in open battle. Eventually, the Ayyubid fleet is blockaded (supported by Danish and Pisan ships) in the port. Acre is again cut off from reinforcements; the city's supplies are exhausted, and the Muslim garrison has to resort to eating their own beasts. In the event, troops are driven to cannibalism.

title: 1190

section: Events › By place › Third Crusade

section: Culture & Society

date: November 24

text: November 24 – The 18-year-old Isabella I, half-sister of Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem, marries Conrad of Montferrat at Acre making him de facto king of Jerusalem (as Conrad I). He has the support of her mother Maria Comnena and stepfather Balian of Ibelin, as well as Reginald of Sidon and other major nobles in the Crusader States.

title: 1190

date: February 13

text: February 13 – Muslim forces attack and succeed in breaking the siege lines around Acre. Though the Crusaders seal the breach, Saladin is able to replenish the garrison, by sending reinforcements. For the defenders, this is a temporary respite – and Saladin is having difficulty keeping his army together. Taqi al-Din, Saladin's nephew and one of his most effective commanders, fails to rejoin the siege. He divides his army for his own territorial ambitions in modern southeastern Turkey. Later in the spring, Taqi al-Din brings his forces to support the double-siege at Acre.

title: 1191

date: May

text: May – The Pisan colony at Tyre plots to seize the city, and hand it over to Guy of Lusignan – the ruler of Cyprus. King Henry I of Jerusalem arrests the ringleaders, and orders that the colony be reduced to only 30 people. The Pisans retaliate, by raiding the coastal villages between Tyre and Acre.

title: 1193

date: September 10

text: September 10 – Henry II, Count of Champagne, king of Jerusalem, dies from falling out a first-floor window at his palace in Acre. His widow, Isabella I, becomes regent while the kingdom is thrown into consternation.

title: 1197

text: Spring – Amalric I, ruler of Cyprus, marries Princess Isabella I, daughter of the late King Amalric I. A few days later they are crowned as King and Queen of Jerusalem at Acre. On July 1, Amalric signs a truce with Al-Adil I, sultan of Egypt and Syria, securing the Crusader possessions from Acre to as far as Antioch.

title: 1198

date: May 20

text: May 20 – An earthquake shakes the Levant from Egypt to northern Iraq, causing severe damage in Palestine, Lebanon and western Syria, including the fortifications of the Crusader cities of Acre, Jaffa and Tyre.

title: 1202

date: September

text: September: Leopold VI finds some ships in Split, that bring him and a small force to Acre. Andrew follows him about a fortnight later; in Split, he receives only two ships. The rest of Andrew's army is left behind. Meanwhile, King Hugh I of Cyprus lands at Acre, with troops to support the Crusade.

title: 1217

section: Events › Fifth Crusade

date: May 24

text: May 24 – A Crusader expeditionary force, (some 30,000 men) under King John I of Jerusalem, embarks at Acre (supported by Frisian ships), and sails for Egypt. They arrive at the harbour of Damietta, on the right bank of the Nile, on May 27. Sultan Al-Adil, surprised by the invasion, recruits an army in Syria, while his son Al-Kamil marches an Egyptian force northwards from Cairo, and encamps at Al-Adiliya, a few miles south of Damietta.

title: 1218

section: Events › By place › Fifth Crusade

section: Religion & Belief

date: July 25

text: July 25 – Emperor Frederick II takes an oath at San Germano (near Cassino) and promises to depart on a Crusade (the Sixth Crusade), for the Near East in August 1227. He sends 1000 knights to the Levant and provides Rome with 100,000 ounces of gold, to be forfeited to the Catholic Church should he break his vow. These funds will be returned to Frederick once he arrives at Acre.

title: 1225

section: Events › July – September

section: Health & Medicine

text: August – Emperor Frederick II musters a German expeditionary force in Apulia. The crowded conditions and high heat contribute to discontent and disease among the assembled troops. On September 24, an epidemic of malaria enfeebles the army at Brindisi. Several thousand Crusaders led by Henry IV, duke of Limburg, and French and English mercenaries under the bishops Peter des Roches and William Briwere, arrive at Acre.

title: 1227

section: Events › By place › Europe

date: May 1

text: May 1 – Frederick II departs from Acre, while he and his suite pass down the "Street of the Butchers" to the harbour, the people crowd out of the doors, and pelts him with entrails and dung. Meanwhile, Odo of Montbéliard (or Eudes), commander of the Crusader army, and John of Ibelin, lord of Beirut, are left behind to quell the unrest in Palestine.

title: 1229

section: Events › By place › Sixth Crusade

text: War of the Lombards: Richard Filangieri sails for Beirut, where the town is handed over to him. He occupies Sidon and Tyre – while other Lombard forces appear before Acre. At Acre, Filangieri summons a meeting of the High Court and shows letters from Frederick II appointing him as ambassador (baili).

title: 1231

date: September 1

text: September 1 – Barons' Crusade: A Crusader force (some 1,500 knights) under King Theobald I of Navarre arrives at Acre. At a council of local barons – most prominently Walter IV of Brienne, Odo of Montbéliard, Balian of Beirut, John of Arsuf, and Balian of Sidon – plans are made to prepare an expedition against the Ayyubids in Egypt. Later, Theobald is joined by some Crusaders from Cyprus.

title: 1239

date: October 10

text: October 10 – Richard of Cornwall, brother of King Henry III of England, arrives at Acre for a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. His pilgrimage has the approval of Emperor Frederick II, who is married to his younger sister, Isabella of England, and gives him the task to make arrangements with the Military Orders. On his arrival, Richard travels to Ascalon, where he is met by ambassadors from As-Salih Ayyub. As a negotiator, he is successful in the release of prisoners captured in the Battle at Gaza (1239), and he also assists with the building of the citadel in Ascalon.

title: 1240

date: October 4

text: October 4 – The Crusaders assemble a force of some 1,000 cavalry and 6,000 men outside Acre, after hearing that Jerusalem is sacked by the Khwarazmians. They are joined by the Ayyubid forces (some 4,000 men) of Damascus and Homs – while Emir An-Nasir Dawud brings his army from Kerak.

title: 1244

date: June 17

text: June 17 – Egyptian forces under Sultan As-Salih Ayyub capture Tiberias and his castle. Mount Tabor and Belvoir Castle are occupied soon afterward. Next, Ayyub moves his army to siege Ascalon – which is defended by a garrison of Knights Hospitaller. They summon the help from Acre and Cyprus.

title: 1247

date: September 17

text: September 17 – Louis IX arrives at Limassol on the island of Cyprus. He gathers his forces and is well received by King Henry I of Cyprus ("the Fat"). The Crusaders are supplemented by nobles from Acre, including Grand Masters Jean de Ronay and Guillaume de Sonnac. Louis prepares a plan of campaign, with Egypt as the prime objective.

title: 1248

section: Events › By place › Seventh Crusade

date: April 24

text: April 24 – Louis IX and his family sail from Acre to France. His boat is nearly wrecked off the coast of Cyprus and later nearly destroyed by fire. In July, the royal party arrives at Hyères in Provence.

title: 1254

text: War of Saint Sabas: A dispute between Venice and Genoa arises about concerning land in Acre owned by Mar Saba but claimed by both Venice and Genoa – which leads to a Genoese attack of the monastery in the Venetian quarter. The Venetians are supported by Pisa and the Knights Templar, while the Genoese are joined by the Knights Hospitaller.

title: 1256

text: Venetian–Genoese Wars: The Venetian fleet under Admiral Lorenzo Tiepolo breaks through the harbour chain at Acre and destroys several Genoese ships. He also attacks the fortifications but Tiepolo is unable to expel the Genoese garrison (some 800 men strong and armed with 50–60 ballistae), from their quarter of the city throwing up a blockade.

title: 1257

date: June 25

text: June 25 – Battle of Acre: The Genoese send an armada (some 50 galleys) to relieve the blockade at Acre and ask for the assistance of Philip of Montfort, lord of Tyre, and the Knights Hospitaller for a combined attack from the land side. The Genoese fleet's arrival takes the Venetians by surprise but the superior experience and seamanship result in a crushing Venetian victory, with half the Genoese ships lost. Later, the Genoese garrison is forced to abandon Acre.

title: 1258

text: April 4 – Egyptian forces led by Sultan Baibars (or Abu al-Futuh) attack Acre; there is severe fighting outside the walls, in which the seneschal, Geoffrey of Sergines, is badly wounded. Baibars is not yet ready to besiege the city and begins a major campaign to eliminate the Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem, the county of Tripoli and the principality of Antioch.

title: 1263

text: July 23 – Siege of Safed: Mamluk forces capture the castle of Safed, defended by a garrison of 1,700 men (including some 500 Knights Templar), after a 6-week siege. Sultan Baibars promises safe conduct but when the Christians and Templars are on their way towards Acre, they are seized and beheaded.

title: 1266

text: September – An Aragonese contingent under King James I ("the Conqueror") sails from Barcelona to the Holy Land but is caught in a storm and badly damaged. One squadron reaches Acre, but later returns to Catalonia.

title: 1269

text: May–June – Baibars conducts an unsuccessful siege of Tripoli, and also fails in an attempted naval invasion of Cyprus. He sends an Egyptian fleet (some 20 ships) to Limassol, while King Hugh III of Cyprus ("the Great") has left for Acre. Due to bad weather and seamanship, 11 ships run aground and the crews fall into the hands of the Cypriots.

title: 1271

text: May 22 – King Hugh III of Cyprus ("the Great") signs a peace with Sultan Baibars, Mamluk ruler of Egypt, at Caesarea. The Kingdom of Jerusalem is guaranteed for 10 years the possession of its present lands, which consists mainly of the narrow coastal plain from Acre to Sidon, together with the right to use without hindrance the pilgrim-road to Nazareth. The County of Tripoli is safeguarded by the peace treaty.

title: 1272

text: January – Charles I is crowned King of Jerusalem, and is recognized by the kingdom's barons at Acre. He surrenders the vicariate of Tuscany to Nicholas III. His bailiff, Roger of San Severino, appoints various Frenchmen from Charles' court as his chief officers. Bohemond VII, count of Tripoli (and nominal Prince of Antioch), acknowledges Roger as lawful bailiff.

title: 1278

text: June – Qalawun ("the Victorious"), Mamluk ruler of Egypt, signs a peace treaty for 10 years with the Crusader States at Caesarea. It guarantees the Crusaders the possession of the territory from the Ladder of Tyre, north of Acre, to Mount Carmel and Atlit. But Tyre and Beirut are excluded. The right of free pilgrimage to Nazareth is permitted for the Christians.

title: 1283

text: June 4 – The 15-year-old Henry II sails from Cyprus and lands in Acre, but is refused entry into the citadel. There, he stays for six weeks in the palace to negotiate an agreement to take over the city from the Angevins.

title: 1286

text: Spring – Genoa orders Admiral Benedetto Zaccaria to send five galleys to support Genoese suzerainty of Tripoli. Princess Lucia, sister of the late Count Bohemond VII, arrives in Acre, where the Knights Hospitaller escort her to the frontier with Tripoli. The commune refuses to accept her as new ruler and places the city under Genoese protection. After negotiations, Lucia offers to confirm Genoa's existing commercial privileges in Tripoli.

title: 1288

text: June – Genoa concludes a new commercial treaty with the Mamluks; five galleys sent by King James II of Aragon ("the Just") join the Venetian Crusader fleet (some 20 ships) on its way to Acre. On board the fleet are Italian urban militias and mercenary forces under Seneschal Jean I de Grailly, who have fought for the Papal States in the so-called Italian Crusades.

title: 1290

text: May 10 – The Egyptians, aided by Maronites, seize Acre from the Ottoman Empire after a 7-month siege.

title: 1832


slug: acropolis

label: Acropolis

description: defensible hilltop used as a settlement's religious, military, and/or political center

year_label: 560 BCE

text: Calf bearer (Moscophoros), from the Acropolis, Athens is made. It is now displayed at the Acropolis Museum, Athens (approximate date).

title: 560 BC

section: Events

year_label: 530 BCE

text: Peplos Kore, from the Acropolis in Athens, is made. It is now at Acropolis Museum, Athens (approximate date).

title: 530 BC

section: Events › By topic › Art and architecture

text: The sculpture of the Kritios Boy is made on Acropolis, Athens (approximate date). It is now preserved in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

title: 480 BC

section: Events › By topic › Arts

year_label: 456 BCE

text: The first of the Athenian sculptor Phidias' monuments to Athena, the bronze Athena Promachos, is placed on the Athenian Acropolis, measuring about 9 metres high.

title: 456 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 449 BCE

text: Pericles places the Athenian sculptor Phidias in charge of all the artistic aspects of his reconstruction program. Construction begins on the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, while the Athenian Senate commissions Callicrates to construct a temple to Athena Nike on the Acropolis.

title: 449 BC

year_label: 447 BCE

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Pericles commissions the architects Kallikrates and Iktinos to design a larger temple for the Parthenon and the construction begins on rebuilding the great temple of Athena (the Parthenon) on the Acropolis at Athens soon afterwards.

title: 447 BC

section: Events › By subject › Architecture

year_label: 438 BCE

text: The Parthenon on the Acropolis at Athens is completed by Ictinus and Callicrates and is consecrated after 9 years of construction. It is dedicated at the Panathenaea (a festival held in honour of Athena every four years on the Acropolis).

title: 438 BC

year_label: 437 BCE

text: Mnesikles starts to build Propylaia, Acropolis, Athens. The work is canceled in 432 BC, due to the Peloponnesian War, and thus is never finished.

title: 437 BC

section: Events › By topic › Architecture

year_label: 425 BCE

text: Callicrates starts to build the Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis in Athens (approximate date). Between 410 and 407 BC the temple is surrounded by a parapet.

title: 425 BC

year_label: 424 BCE

text: The temple to Athena Nike (also known as the Wingless Victory) on the Athenian Acropolis is completed. It has been designed by the Athenian architect Callicrates.

title: 424 BC

year_label: 421 BCE

text: The construction of the Porch of the Maidens (the Caryatid Porch) commences at the Erechtheion which is part of the Acropolis in Athens.

title: 421 BC

section: Events › By topic › Art

year_label: 410 BCE

text: A relief decoration from the parapet (now destroyed), Nike (Victory) adjusting her sandal is constructed in the Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis in Athens and is ready in 407 BC. It is now preserved at the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

title: 410 BC

section: Events › By subject › Art

year_label: 405 BCE

text: The Erechtheum, which includes The Porch of Maidens (Caryatid Porch), is completed in the Ionian style on the Acropolis in Athens after 16 years of construction.

title: 405 BC

text: A major expansion of Copán's ceremonial center, the Acropolis complex, is undertaken by B'alam Nehn (Waterlily Jaguar), the seventh ruler (ajaw) of the southeastern Maya city (approximate date).

title: 504

section: Events › By place › Mesoamerica

date: December 29

text: December 29 – Representatives of Prince Amadeo of Savoy meet with Nerio I Acciaioli, Duke of Athens at the Acropolis in a pact against the Navarrese Company. The parties agree to oppose the Navarrese control of Morea and Nerio agrees to recognize Amadeo as Prince of Achaea.

title: 1391

section: Events › October–December

section: Conflict & Security

date: June

text: June – Francesco II Acciaioli, last Duke of Athens, surrenders the city to the Ottoman Empire and Sultan Mehmed II enters peacefully in August. Ottoman authorities issue a decree to protect the Acropolis.

title: 1458

section: Events › April–June

date: May 30

text: May 30 – WWII: Manolis Glezos and Apostolos Santas tear down the Nazi swastika on the Acropolis in Athens and replace it with the Greek flag.

title: 1941

section: Events › May


description: year

section: Births

text: Ukhtanes of Sebastia, Armenian historian (d. 1000)

title: 935

text: Masako, Japanese empress consort (d. 1000)

title: 950

section: Religion & Belief

text: Olaf Tryggvason is crowned king of Norway (and ruled until 1000) and builds the country's first Christian church.

title: 995

section: Events › Europe

date: September 9

text: September 9 (999 or 1000) – Battle of Svolder: A Norwegian fleet, commanded by Olaf Tryggvason in his longship Ormrinn langi, is defeated by the combined fleet of the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard and his Swedish counterpart Olof Skötkonung, resulting in Tryggvason's death, and the splitting up of Norway between Sweden and Denmark.

title: AD 999

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Deaths

text: Qawam al-Dawla, Buyid governor and ruler of Kerman (b. 1000)

title: 1028

text: Otto Bolesławowic, Polish prince (House of Piast) (b. 1000)

title: 1033

date: July 3

text: July 3 – Robert I, Duke of Normandy ("the Magnificent"), (b. 1000) (approximate date)

title: 1035

date: November 11

text: November 11 – Adalbert, duke of Upper Lorraine (b. 1000)

title: 1048

date: December 20

text: December 20 – Dominic of Silos, Spanish abbot (b. 1000)

title: 1073

text: Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi, Fatimid scholar (b. 1000)

title: 1078

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Gaspar Corte-Real, Portuguese navigator, makes the first documented European landing in North America since c. 1000 A.D.

title: 1501

section: Events › Date unknown


description: year

year_label: 47 CE

text: Taejodae, Korean ruler of Goguryeo (d. 165)

title: 40s

section: Births › AD 47

year_label: 71 CE

text: Chadae, Korean king of Goguryeo (d. 165)

title: AD 71

year_label: 95 CE

text: Appian of Alexandria, Greek historian and writer (d. 165)

title: AD 95

text: Justin Martyr, Christian apologist and saint (d. 165)

title: AD 100

text: Felicitas of Rome, Christian female martyr (d. 165)

title: AD 101

text: Elpinice, Roman noblewoman (d. 165)

title: AD 142

text: Cui Yan (or Jigui), Chinese official and politician (b. 165)

title: 216

date: June 8

text: June 8 – Macrinus, Roman emperor (b. 165)

title: 218

text: Mi Zhu, Chinese general and politician (b. 165)

title: 221

text: Shi Hui, Chinese official and general (b. 165)

title: 227


description: year

text: Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Roman grammarian, rhetorician and advocate (d. 170)

title: AD 100

text: Alexander of Abonoteichus, Greek mystic and oracle (d. 170)

title: AD 105

text: Guo Jia, Chinese adviser and official (b. 170)

title: 207

text: Chen Deng, Chinese general and politician (b. 170)

title: 209

text: Cao Chun, Chinese general and adviser (b. 170)

title: 210

text: Domitius Ulpianus, Roman jurist and prefect (b. 170)

title: 228

text: Hippolytus, Christian theologian and writer (b. 170)

title: 235

text: Herodian of Antioch, Roman historian and writer (b. 170)

title: 240

text: Himiko (or Shingi Waō), Japanese queen regnant (b. 170)

title: 248


description: year

date: February 8

text: February 8 – Vettius Valens, Greek astrologer (d. 175)

title: AD 120

text: Avidius Cassius, Roman general and usurper (d. 175)

title: AD 130

text: Pontianus of Spoleto, Christian martyr and saint (d. 175)

title: AD 156

text: Sun Ce, Chinese general and warlord (b. 175)

title: AD 200

text: Zhou Yu, Chinese general and strategist (b. 175)

title: 210

text: Yang Xiu (or Dezi), Chinese official, adviser and chancellor (b. 175)

title: 219

date: May 23

text: May 23 – Urban I, bishop of Rome (b. 175)

title: 230

text: Ammonius Saccas, Egyptian philosopher (b. 175)

title: 242

text: Abba Arikha, Babylonian Jewish scholar and rabbi (b. 175)

title: 247


description: year

text: Hegesippus of Nazarene, Christian chronicler and writer (d. 180)

title: AD 110

text: Pausanias, Greek historian and geographer (d. 180)

title: AD 115

text: Tatian, Syrian Christian writer and theologian (d. 180)

title: AD 120

date: April 26

text: April 26 – Marcus Annius Verus, later Emperor Marcus Aurelius (d. 180)

title: AD 121

text: Hadrian's Wall is retaken for the first time, since the Pictish uprising of 180.

title: 206

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: Julia Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus (b. 180)

title: 222

text: Julia Avita Mamaea, mother of Severus Alexander (b. 180)

title: 235

text: Ardashir I, king of the Sassanid Empire (b. 180)

title: 242

text: Sima Fu, Chinese prince and statesman (b. 180)

title: 272


description: year

text: Cai Yong, Chinese calligrapher and musician (d. 192)

title: AD 132

text: Dong Zhuo, Chinese general and warlord (d. 192)

title: AD 134

text: Wang Yun, Chinese official, politician (d. 192)

title: AD 137

text: Bao Xin, Chinese general and warlord (d. 192)

title: AD 152

text: Lu Zhi, Chinese general (d. 192)

title: AD 159

date: August 31

text: August 31 – Commodus, Roman emperor (d. 192)

title: AD 161

section: Science & Discovery

text: c. 191–192 – The sculpture of Commodus as Hercules, from Esquiline Hill, Rome, is made (it is now kept at Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome).

title: AD 191

date: December 27

text: December 27 – Cao Zhi, Chinese prince and poet (b. 192)

title: 232

date: April 12

text: April 12 – Gordian II, Roman emperor (b. 192)

title: 238


label: AD 4

description: year

year_label: 98 BCE

text: Terentia, first wife of Cicero (d. AD 4).

title: 98 BC

year_label: 75 BCE

text: Gaius Asinius Pollio, Roman politician and poet (d. AD 4)

title: 75 BC

year_label: 69 BCE

text: Hyeokgeose, Korean king and founder of Silla (d. AD 4)

title: 69 BC

year_label: 65 BCE

text: Gaius Asinius Pollio, Roman orator, poet and historian (d. AD 4)

title: 65 BC

year_label: 20 BCE

text: Gaius Caesar, grandson of Augustus Caesar (d. AD 4)

title: 20 BC

year_label: 6 BCE

text: Tiberius retires to Rhodes, to the inconvenience of Emperor Augustus. He is recalled to Rome years later in AD 4, becoming Augustus' adopted son and heir following the deaths of Lucius and Gaius Caesar.

title: 0s BC

section: Events › 6 BC › Roman Empire

year_label: 27 CE

text: Publius Quinctilius Varus the Younger, Roman nobleman (b. AD 4)

title: 20s

section: Deaths › 27 AD

year_label: 80 CE

text: Zhao Xi, Chinese politician (b. AD 4)

title: AD 80


label: AD 69

description: calendar year

year_label: 3 BCE

date: December 24

text: December 24 – Servius Sulpicius Galba, Roman emperor in AD 69.

title: 0s BC

section: Births › 3 BC

year_label: 8 CE

text: AD 8 – Titus Flavius Sabinus, Roman consul and brother of Vespasian (d. AD 69)

title: 0s

year_label: 10 CE

text: Tigellinus, Roman Praetorian prefect (d. AD 69)

title: 10s

section: Births › 10 AD

year_label: 15 CE

date: September 24

text: September 24 – Vitellius, Roman emperor (d. AD 69)

title: 10s

section: Births › 15 AD

year_label: 32 CE

date: April 28

text: 28 April – Marcus Salvius Otho, Roman emperor (d. AD 69)

title: 30s

section: Births › 32 AD

year_label: 38 CE

text: Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus, Roman co-emperor (d. AD 69)

title: 30s

section: Births › 38 AD

text: Tacitus writes Histories, which covers the period from AD 69 to AD 96.

title: AD 108

section: Events › By topic › Arts and sciences

text: Polycarpus, Greco-Roman bishop (b. AD 69)

title: AD 177


description: year

section: Births

text: Song Jing, chancellor of the Tang dynasty (d. 737)

title: 663

text: Fujiwara no Muchimaro, Japanese politician (d. 737)

title: 680

text: Fujiwara no Fusasaki, Japanese counselor (d. 737)

title: 681

text: Fujiwara no Umakai, Japanese statesman (d. 737)

title: 694

text: Fujiwara no Maro, Japanese statesman (d. 737)

title: 695

text: Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, Japanese nobleman (b. 737)

title: 785

text: Huaisu, Chinese Buddhist monk (b. 737)

title: 799

date: February 5

text: February 5 – Kanmu, emperor of Japan (b. 737)

title: 806

text: Hisham ibn al-Kalbi, Arab historian (b. 737)

title: 819


description: year

text: Tachibana no Moroe, Japanese prince and minister (d. 757)

title: 684

text: Alfonso I, king of Asturias (approximate date; d. 757)

title: 693

text: Zhang Xun, general of the Tang Dynasty (d. 757)

title: 709

text: Stephen II, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 757)

title: 715

text: Tachibana no Naramaro, Japanese statesman (d. 757)

title: 721

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles description under this date (now dated 757), of King Sigeberht of Wessex being deposed by Cynewulf, is notably fuller than earlier entries.

title: 755

section: Events › By place › Britain

date: June 12

text: June 12 – Hisham I, Muslim emir (b. 757)

title: 796

text: Gisela, Frankish abbess (b. 757)

title: 810


description: year

date: July 20

text: July 20 – Taichō, Japanese Buddhist monk (d. 767)

title: 682

date: September 5

text: September 5 – Abū Hanīfa, Arab imam and scholar (d. 767)

title: 699

text: Paul I, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 767)

title: 700

section: Deaths

text: Ibn Ishaq, Arab historian and hagiographer (or 767)

title: 761

section: Religion & Belief

date: August 7

text: August 7 – Pope Stephen III succeeds Paul I as the 94th pope of the Catholic Church. The antipope Constantine II is overthrown at Rome, through intervention by King Desiderius of the Lombards, after a brief reign (see 767).

title: 768

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Ja'far ibn Yahya, Persian vizier (b. 767)

title: 803

text: Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i, Muslim imam (b. 767)

title: 820

date: June 26

text: June 26 – Saichō, Japanese Buddhist monk (b. 767)

title: 822


label: AD 79

description: year

year_label: 3 CE

text: AD 3 – Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, Roman politician and astrologer (d. AD 79)

title: 0s

text: Drusilla, Jewish princess and daughter of Herod Agrippa I (d. AD 79)

title: 30s

year_label: 40 CE

text: Ma, Chinese empress of the Han dynasty (d. AD 79)

title: 40s

section: Births › AD 40

year_label: 60 CE

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: AD 60–79 – House of the Vettii, Pompeii, is rebuilt.

title: AD 60

section: Events › By topic › Art and science

year_label: 62 CE

section: Culture & Society

text: The making of Still Life, a detail of a wall painting from Herculaneum, begins (finished in AD 79). It is now kept at Museo Nazionale in Naples.

title: AD 62

date: February 13

text: February 13 – He of Han, Chinese emperor of the Han dynasty (b. AD 79)

title: AD 106

text: Ma Rong, Chinese poet and politician (b. AD 79)

title: AD 166

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: October 22

text: October 22 – The excavation of Herculaneum, a Roman city buried by Vesuvius in AD 79, begins near the Italian city of Resina on orders from King Charles III of Spain to his engineer, Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre.

title: 1738

section: Events › October–December


description: year

date: October 9

text: October 9 – Li Chun'an, Chinese merchant (d. 999)

title: 921

text: Boleslaus II, duke of Bohemia (d. 999)

title: 930

text: Cao Bin, general of the Song dynasty (d. 999)

title: 931

text: Adelaide, empress regent of the Holy Roman Empire (d. 999)

title: 931

text: Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg, German princess-abbess and daughter of Otto I (d. 999)

title: 955

text: Gregory V, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 999)

title: 972

text: Fujiwara no Ishi, Japanese empress (b. 999)

title: 1036

date: May 20

text: May 20 – Bao Zheng, Chinese politician (b. 999)

title: 1062

text: Odo of Rennes, duke and regent of Brittany (b. 999)

title: 1079


slug: adana

label: Adana

description: central district and city in Adana Province, Turkey

section: Conflict & Security

text: Battle of Sarus: Heraclius is victorious in a Byzantine assault river crossing. The reinforced Persians under Shahrbaraz are defeated along the Sarus River, near Adana (modern Turkey). Heraclius recaptures Cappadocia and Pontus, and returns to Trapezus to spend the winter. Shahrbaraz retreats in good order, and is able to continue his advance through Asia Minor towards Constantinople.

title: 625

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Nikephoros II continues the reconquest of south-eastern Anatolia (modern Turkey). He recaptured Cyprus through Niketas Chalkoutzes, and reorganizes the conquered lands into new themes. In the summer, they take the fortress cities of Anazarbus and Adana. Byzantine troops under General John Tzimiskes besiege Mopsuestia, but with the coming of winter he is forced to retreat to Caesarea.

title: 964

section: Events › Byzantine Empire

text: Summer – The Byzantine fleet under Admiral Eustathios recaptures the ports of western Cilicia, Seleucia and Corycus. Eustathios extends his power over Cilician territory (belonging to Bohemond I) further east – occupying Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra.

title: 1101

text: Spring – Bohemond I, Norman prince of Antioch, is released from Seljuk imprisonment at Niksar, after a ransom is paid of 100,000 gold pieces. During his absence, Tancred (Bohemond's nephew) attacks the Byzantines, and re-captures the cities of Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra in Cilicia. Tancred is deprived of his lordship by Bohemond's return, and is rewarded with a small fief within the Principality of Antioch.

title: 1103

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: Summer – The Byzantines re-occupy the Cilician cities of Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra. A naval squadron, under Admiral Cantacuzenus, pursues in Cypriot waters a Genoese raiding fleet, and sails on to Latakia, where they capture the harbour and the lower city. Bohemond I reinforces the garrison in the citadel.

title: 1104

text: The Crusaders under Tancred, prince of Galilee, recover the Cilician cities of Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra conquered by Emperor Alexios I 3-years ago (see 1104).

title: 1107

text: Spring – Emperor John II (Komnenos) leads a Byzantine expeditionary force into Cilicia (the Byzantine fleet guards his flank). He defeats the Armenians under Prince Leo I ("Lord of the Mountains"), and captures the cities of Mersin, Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra. Leo retreats to the great fortifications of Anazarbus – where its garrison resists for 37 days. The Byzantine siege engines batter down its walls, and the city is forced to surrender. Leo escapes into the Taurus Mountains, while the Byzantine forces march southward into the plain of Antioch.

title: 1137

section: Climate & Environment

text: An earthquake in Cilicia occurs in 1268 northeast of the city of Adana. Over 60,000 people perished in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in southern Asia Minor.

title: 1268

section: Events › By place › Asia

date: February 9

text: February 9 – The Adana campaign begins when the Mamluk Sultanate, based in the Middle East, begins a siege to recover the city of Adana (now in Turkey), recently captured by the Ottoman Empire. General Uzbek min Tutuh, Governor of Damascus, leads the Mamluk troops

title: 1485

section: Events › January–March


slug: adelaide-of-italy

label: Adelaide of Italy

description: Holy Roman Empress, Catholic saint (931–999)

section: Births

title: 931

text: King Hugh of Arles (king of Italy) travels to Colombier (Switzerland) and marries Rudolph's widow Bertha. He takes Conrad I under his tutelage and betroths Rudolph's 6-year-old daughter Adelaide with his own son and co-ruler Lothair II.

title: 937

section: Events › By place › Europe

date: November 22

text: November 22 – King Lothair II dies at Turin (possibly poisoned by Berengar of Ivrea). Berengar is crowned king of Italy and imprisons Lothair's now 19-year-old widow, Adelaide for four months at Como.

title: 950

date: February 2

text: February 2 – King Otto I (the Great) is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII at the Old St. Peter's Basilica, ending Rome's feudal anarchy. Otto's wife Adelaide is anointed as empress; the East Frankish Kingdom and the Kingdom of Italy are unified into a common realm, called the Roman Empire.

title: 962

text: Spring – King Lothair of France marries Princess Emma of Italy (the only daughter of Adelaide of Burgundy—second wife of Emperor Otto the Great, from her first marriage with King Lothair II, member of the Bosonid dynasty). Lothair strengthens his ties with the Holy Roman Empire. He temporarily remains in control of the cities of Arras and Douai. The latter becomes a flourishing textile market centre during the Middle Ages.

title: 966

section: Events › Europe

date: May 7

text: May 7 – Emperor Otto I (the Great) dies at Memleben in Thuringia (modern Germany) after a 37-year reign. He is succeeded by his 18-year-old son Otto II (the Red), who becomes absolute ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. His mother Adelaide will exert great influence on Otto, although her lavish philanthropies will be a source of contention. Otto's succession leads to conflicts in the south German duchies and in Lotharingia.

title: 973

text: Summer – Henry II (the Wrangler) is restored as duke of Bavaria by Empress Theophanu and her mother-in-law Adelaide at an Hoftag assembly in Rohr (Thuringia). King Otto III (5-years old) remains under the regency of the two empresses in the Holy Roman Empire and in the Kingdom of Italy.

title: 985

date: June 15

text: June 15: Theophanu dies in Nijmegen, and Adelaide of Italy assumes full regency over her grandson, Otto III.

title: 991

section: Events

date: May 21

text: May 21 – Otto III, 16, is crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire at St. Peter's Basilica, and claims also the title of King of Italy. His grandmother, Adelaide, retires to a convent she has founded at Seltz (Alsace). Otto puts down a Roman rebellion; a number of nobles (including Crescentius II) are banished for their crimes.

title: 996

date: December 16

text: December 16 – Adelaide of Italy, empress regent of the Holy Roman Empire (b. 931)

title: AD 999


slug: aden

label: Aden

description: port city and temporary capital of Yemen

year_label: 54 CE

text: Under Nero, Rome annexes Aden to protect the maritime route between Alexandria and Asia.

title: 50s

section: Events › 54 AD › Arabia

date: March 26

text: March 26 – On Easter Sunday, Afonso de Albuquerque, Governor of Portuguese India, makes an unsuccessful attempt to capture the port city of Aden, on the Arabian Peninsula, from the Mamluk Sultanate, using 20 ships and 2,500 soldiers. The 1,700 Portuguese, along with 800 mercenaries from Malabar, lose at least 100 killed during the attack and retreat.

title: 1513

date: September 17

text: September 17 – Based in Kamaran, an island in the Red Sea, the Mamluk Egyptian Admiral Selman Reis leads of fleet 19 ships in an unsuccessful attempt to take Yemen and Aden.

title: 1516

section: Events › July–September

date: November 15

text: November 15 – A fleet of 60 Ottoman Navy ships, commanded by Piri Reis, arrives at the port of Aden (now in Yemen) and captures the city in slightly more than three months, by February 26, 1548.

title: 1547

date: January 19

text: January 19 – Three ships from the Portuguese Navy arrive at the port of Aden to assist Mohammed bin Ali al-Tawlaki, who has been defending the city against an attack by the Ottoman Navy. The Portuguese ships are forced to retreat to Zeila in Somalia, where 120 survivors are captured and their ships are burned.

title: 1548

date: June 10

text: June 10 – The Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, to create a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo to Aden, is formally declared by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca.

title: 1916

section: Events › June

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: February 22

text: February 22 – Lufthansa Flight 649 is hijacked and taken to Aden. Passengers are released the following day after a ransom of 5 million US dollars is agreed.

title: 1972

section: Events › February

date: July 7

text: July 7 – 1994 civil war in Yemen: Aden is occupied by troops from North Yemen.

title: 1994

section: Events › July

date: October 12

text: October 12 – In Aden, Yemen, USS Cole is badly damaged by two Al-Qaeda suicide bombers, who place a small boat laden with explosives alongside the United States Navy destroyer, killing 17 crew members and wounding at least 39.

title: 2000

section: Events › October


slug: adolf-hitler

label: Adolf Hitler

description: dictator of Germany from 1933 to 1945, main instigator of World War II (1889–1945)

section: Conflict & Security

date: April 20

text: April 20 – Birth of Adolf Hitler at Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary, the son of customs official Alois Hitler and his third wife, Klara.

title: 1889

section: Events › April

section: Deaths

date: January 3

text: January 3 – Alois Hitler, Austrian civil servant, father of Adolf Hitler (b. 1837)

title: 1903

section: Deaths › January–June

date: May 24

text: May 24–25 – Adolf Hitler moves from Vienna to Munich.

title: 1913

section: Events › May

section: Technology & Infrastructure

date: October 16

text: October 16 – In Germany, Adolf Hitler gives his first speech for the German Workers' Party (DAP).

title: 1919

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: February 24

text: February 24 – Adolf Hitler presents his National Socialist Program in Munich to the German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei), which renames itself as the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei).

title: 1920

date: November 4

text: November 4 – After a speech by Adolf Hitler in the Hofbräuhaus in Munich (Germany), members of the Sturmabteilung ("brownshirts") physically assault his opposition.

title: 1921

section: Events › November

section: Crime & Justice

date: November 11

text: November 11 – Adolf Hitler is arrested for his leading role in the Beer Hall Putsch.

title: 1923

section: Events › November–December

date: November 8

text: November 8 – Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Bavarian government; police and troops crush the attempt the next day in one of several significant events on 9 November in German history. 20 people die as a result of associated violence.

title: 1923

date: April 1

text: April 1 – Adolf Hitler is sentenced to 5 years in Landsberg Prison in Germany for his participation in the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch (he serves less than 9 months).

title: 1924

date: December 20

text: December 20 – In Germany, Adolf Hitler is released from Landsberg Prison after serving nine months for his crucial role in the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923.

title: 1924

section: Events › December

date: July 18

text: July 18 – Adolf Hitler publishes Volume 1 of his personal manifesto Mein Kampf in Germany.

title: 1925

date: November 9

text: November 9 – Formal foundation date of the Schutzstaffel (SS) as a personal bodyguard for Adolf Hitler in Germany.

title: 1925

date: February 25

text: February 25 – Adolf Hitler obtains German citizenship by naturalization, opening the opportunity for him to run in the 1932 German presidential election.

title: 1932

date: May 6

text: May 6 – The politically powerful General Kurt von Schleicher meets secretly with Adolf Hitler. Schleicher tells Hitler that he is scheming to bring down the Brüning government in Germany and asks for Nazi support of the new "presidential government" Schleicher is planning to form. Schleicher and Hitler negotiate a "gentlemen's agreement" where in exchange for lifting the ban on the SA and SS and having the Reichstag dissolved for early elections this summer, the Nazis will support Schleicher's new chancellor.

title: 1932

date: February 1

text: February 1 – Adolf Hitler gives his "Proclamation to the German People" in Berlin.

title: 1933

date: January 30

text: January 30 – Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany by President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg.

title: 1933

section: Events › January

date: March 23

text: March 23 – Gleichschaltung: The Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, making Adolf Hitler effectively the dictator of Germany.

title: 1933

section: Events › March

section: Economy & Finance

date: May 2

text: May 2 – Gleichschaltung: Adolf Hitler prohibits trade unions.

title: 1933

date: August 8

text: August 8 – The Wehrmacht swears a personal oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler.

title: 1934

section: Events › July–August

date: June 14

text: June 14 – Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini meet for the first time, at the Venice Biennale.

title: 1934

section: Events › May–June

date: February 26

text: February 26 – In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler orders reinstatement of the air force, the Luftwaffe, in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.

title: 1935

date: March 16

text: March 16 – Adolf Hitler announces German re-armament in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.

title: 1935

text: May 21 – In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler announces the reintroduction of conscription to the Wehrmacht, in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.

title: 1935

date: March 7

text: March 7 – In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and Locarno Treaties, Nazi Germany reoccupies the Rhineland. Hitler and other Nazis later admit that the French army alone could have destroyed the Wehrmacht.

title: 1936

section: Events › March–April

date: November 5

text: November 5 – World War II: In the Reich Chancellery, Adolf Hitler holds a secret meeting and states his plans for acquiring "living space" for the German people (recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum).

title: 1937

date: February 4

text: February 4 – Adolf Hitler abolishes the War Ministry and creates the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces), giving him direct control of the German military. In addition, he dismisses political and military leaders considered unsympathetic to his philosophy or policies. General Werner von Fritsch is forced to resign as Commander of Chief of the German Army following accusations of homosexuality, and replaced by General Walther von Brauchitsch. Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath is dismissed, and replaced by Joachim von Ribbentrop.

title: 1938

date: April 28

text: April 28 – In a speech before the Reichstag, Adolf Hitler renounces the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression.

title: 1939

date: January 1

text: January 1 – With his traditional call to the New Year in Nazi Germany, Führer and Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler addresses the members of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP).

title: 1939

date: January 27

text: January 27 – Adolf Hitler orders Plan Z, a 5-year naval expansion programme intended to provide for a huge German fleet capable of crushing the British Royal Navy by 1944. The Kriegsmarine is given the first priority on the allotment of German economic resources.

title: 1939

date: March 13

text: March 13 – Adolf Hitler advises Jozef Tiso to declare Slovakia's independence, in order to prevent its partition by Hungary and Poland.

title: 1939

text: November 8 – WWII: In Munich, an attempt to kill Adolf Hitler is made by Georg Elser while Hitler is celebrating the 16th anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch.

title: 1939

section: Religion & Belief

date: September

text: The Reichstag passes a statement, stating that Adolf Hitler's second-in-command Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring should be appointed as Hitler's successor as Führer, should Hitler die during the war. Rudolf Hess is to be appointed in Göring's place, should anything befall Göring.

title: 1939

section: Events › September

date: July

text: Adolf Hitler makes a peace appeal ("appeal to reason") to Britain, in an address to the Reichstag. BBC German-language broadcaster Sefton Delmer unofficially rejects it at once and Lord Halifax, the British foreign minister, flatly rejects peace terms in a broadcast reply on July 22.

title: 1940

text: January 23 – Aviator Charles Lindbergh testifies before the U.S. Congress, and recommends that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Adolf Hitler.

title: 1941

text: January 3 – A decree (Normalschrifterlass) promulgated in Germany by Martin Bormann, on behalf of Adolf Hitler, requires replacement of blackletter typefaces by Antiqua.

title: 1941

text: April 26 – WWII: The Reichstag meets for the last time, dissolving itself and proclaiming Adolf Hitler the "Supreme Judge of the German People", granting him the power of life and death over every German citizen.

title: 1942

text: November 22 – WWII: Battle of Stalingrad: The situation for the German attackers of Stalingrad seems desperate during the Soviet counter-attack Operation Uranus, and General Friedrich Paulus sends Adolf Hitler a telegram, saying that the German Sixth Army is surrounded.

title: 1942

text: July 20 – WWII: Adolf Hitler survives the 20 July plot to assassinate him led by Claus von Stauffenberg; he and his fellow conspirators in this and Operation Valkyrie are executed the following day.

title: 1944

text: October 14 – WWII: German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel commits forced suicide rather than face public disgrace and execution for allegedly conspiring against Adolf Hitler.

title: 1944

text: April 29 – Adolf Hitler marries his longtime mistress Eva Braun, in a closed civil ceremony in the Berlin Führerbunker, and signs his last will and testament.

title: 1945

text: April 9 – Johann Georg Elser, would-be assassin of Adolf Hitler, is executed at Dachau concentration camp.

title: 1945

text: Adolf Hitler makes his last public speech, on broadcast radio, expressing the belief that Germany will triumph.

title: 1945

text: May 28 – Unity Mitford, British socialite; friend of Adolf Hitler (b. 1914)

title: 1948

text: April 4 – Fragments of burnt human remains believed to be those of Adolf Hitler, Eva Braun, Joseph Goebbels, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children are crushed and scattered in the Biederitz river at a KGB center in Magdeburg, East Germany.

title: 1970


slug: adriatic-sea

label: Adriatic Sea

description: body of water between the Italian Peninsula and the Balkan Peninsula

year_label: 231 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Demetrius II, king of Macedonia, seeks military help from Agron, king of Illyria, a loosely organized state on the Adriatic coast north of Epirus, against the advancing Aetolians. The Illyrian army routs the Aetolians and returns home as the victor.

title: 231 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 219 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The Romans extend their area of domination around the head of the Adriatic Sea as far as the peninsula of Histria by the conquest of peoples who dwell to the east of the Veneti. Thus, with the exception of Liguria and the upper valley of the Po River, all Italy south of the Alps is brought within the Roman sphere.

title: 219 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 212 BCE

text: After being stopped twice by the Romans in his attempts to invade Illyria by sea, and constrained by the Roman commander Marcus Valerius Laevinus' fleet in the Adriatic, Philip V of Macedon keeps his activities in Illyria land based. Keeping clear of the coast, he takes Dassaretis, Atintani and Parthini, and the town of Dimale.

title: 212 BC

section: Events › By place › Illyria

year_label: 49 BCE

text: September – Brutus defeats the combined Pompeian-Massilian naval forces of the siege of Massilia, while the Caesarian fleet in the Adriatic Sea is defeated near Curicta (Krk).

title: 49 BC

section: Events › By place and Date › Roman Republic

year_label: 42 BCE

text: July – Mark Antony lands with an army (28 legions) in Illyria, leaving Octavian ill at Dyrrachium, and marches to Amphipolis. Admiral Ahenobarbus, with the Republican fleet (130 warships), blockades the Adriatic Sea.

title: 42 BC

date: May 1

text: May 1 – Emperor Diocletian abdicates and retires to his palace at Salona (modern Split) on the Adriatic coast, after a reign of nearly 21 years, in which the last vestiges of republican government have disappeared.

title: 305

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great assumes the regency over Amalaric, his grandson and future king of the Visigothic Kingdom - Theodoric now rules over territory stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Adriatic Sea.

title: 511

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Belisarius, still besieging Ravenna, negotiates a treaty with Theodebert I (whose forces are suffering from dysentery), and the Franks retreat to Gaul. The Byzantine fleet controls the Adriatic Sea and blockades the port of the capital from supplies.

title: 539

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

section: Deaths

text: After the death of his cousin Germanus, Justinian I appoints Narses new supreme commander, and returns to Italy. In Salona on the Adriatic coast, he assembles a Byzantine expeditionary force totaling 20,000 or possibly 30,000 men and a contingent of foreign allies, notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars.

title: 551

text: Spring – The Lombards, led by King Alboin, cross the Julian Alps. Their invasion of Northern Italy is almost unopposed; withered Byzantine forces, that remain in the Po Valley and are based at Ravenna, are no match for the overwhelming Lombard incursion. Residents of the Italian countryside flee at the Lombards' approach. Some retreat to the barrier islands along the shore of the Northern Adriatic Sea, where they establish permanent settlements: the nascent city of Venice.

title: 568

text: Heraclius invites the Croats, a Slavic tribe living in Galicia, Silesia, and Bohemia, to settle in Illyricum. They are given the land between the Drava River and the Adriatic Sea for ridding of Avars. The Serbs are allowed to move from their homeland north of the Carpathians to a territory east of the Croats. Heraclius asks Pope Honorius I to send missionaries to both groups.

title: 626

text: A revolt breaks out in Italy against Leo's Iconoclasm; this results in the independence of the Exarchate of Ravenna, after part of a Byzantine invasion force is lost in a storm in the Adriatic Sea, and the remainder of Byzantine troops are repulsed.

title: AD 727

text: King Pepin of Italy conquers Istria on the Adriatic, ignoring Byzantine protests. He establishes a tributary march, and sends missionaries.

title: 789

text: Emperors Nikephoros I and Charlemagne settle their imperial boundaries in the Adriatic Sea, and sign the Pax Nicephori ("Peace of Nikephoros"). The Byzantines retain control of the coastal cities and islands in Dalmatian Croatia, while Frankish rule is accepted over Istria and the Dalmatian hinterland. Venice is recognized as independent by the Byzantine Empire.

title: 803

text: Spring – The Venetian dukes change sides again, submitting to King Pepin, under the authority of his father Charlemagne, who then proceeds to take Venice. Emperor Nikephoros I sends a Byzantine fleet to Dalmatia, prompting Pepin to withdraw to the mainland. A legate is dispatched to Venice, where he deposes the turncoat dukes, before continuing on to Aachen, to negotiate a peace with Charlemagne. Charlemagne recognises Byzantine dominance over Venice and Dalmatia in the Adriatic Sea.

title: 810

section: Climate & Environment

text: Winter – The weather is so severe that the Adriatic Sea freezes, and Italy is covered in snow for 100 days.

title: 859

text: Summer – Emperor Basil I allies with the Frankish emperor Louis II against the Saracens. He sends a Byzantine fleet of 400 ships (according to the Annales Bertiniani), under the command of Admiral Niketas Ooryphas, to support Louis (who is besieging the city port of Bari) and to clear the south of the Adriatic Sea of Muslim raiders.

title: 869

text: Fall – An Arab fleet from Taranto sails up the Adriatic Sea and sacks Comacchio, putting it to flames. They attack Grado (bishopric of the Venetian Republic), but are repelled by the Venetians.

title: 875

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

text: At the invitation of Benevento, the newly-restored Byzantine fleet appears in the waters off Otranto. On the orders of Emperor Basil I, the Byzantines sail up the Adriatic Sea and reconquer part of southern Italy. The city of Bari is occupied in the name of the Byzantine Empire. Instead of holding it for his 'ally' Adelchis of Benevento, Basil makes it the capital of the new Byzantine Theme of Longobardia.

title: 876

text: Summer – The Slavic-Arab leader Sabir defeats a small Byzantine fleet and seizes Termoli (in Molise, on the Adriatic coast). He returns to Africa laden with booty and slaves.

title: 929

text: Spring – Emperor Henry II divides his army into three columns and descends through Rome onto Capua after the Lombard states of Southern Italy had switched their allegiance to the Byzantinians in the wake of the battle of Cannae four years earlier. The bulk of the expeditionary force (20,000 men) led by Henry, makes its way down the Adriatic coast.

title: 1022

text: Byzantine–Venetian treaty: Alexios I signs a trade and defence pact with Venice, in the form of an imperial Golden Bull. He grants the Venetians a commercial colony in Constantinople, as well as free trading and exemption from taxes, throughout the Byzantine Empire in return for their defense of the Adriatic Sea against the Normans.

title: 1082

date: August

text: August – Hugh ("the Great"), count of Vermandois (a brother of King Philip I), departs to join the First Crusade. He travels with a small army via the Alps to Rome. While sailing the Adriatic Sea from Bari to Dyrrachium his fleet is reduced by shipwreck. Hugh's own ship is stranded on the shore near Epirus.

title: 1096

section: Events › By place › First Crusade

date: November

text: November – Siege of Dyrrhachium: Bohemond I begins the siege of the Adriatic port city of Dyrrhachium held by its doux Alexios Komnenos.

title: 1107

text: King Béla III of Hungary and Croatia goes to war with Venice in an effort to recover Dalmatia. The city of Zadar (located on the Adriatic Sea) accepts Béla's suzerainty.

title: 1181

section: Events › Europe

text: Summer – The Crusader army, encamped on the island of San Niccolo di Lido, between the Venetian Lagoon and the Adriatic Sea, is threatened by Doge Enrico Dandolo to keep them interned unless full payment is made as agreed in 1201. As the Crusaders wait on the Lido for men to arrive, they also use up food supplies that Venice has agreed to supply. Dandolo faces a financial catastrophe, having halted Venice's commerce for a year to prepare the expedition. The Crusader lords can offer Dandolo only 51,000 silver marks.

title: 1202

section: Events › By place › Fourth Crusade

text: Stephen II becomes ruler (ban) of Bosnia following the death of his father Stephen I Kotromanić. He rules the lands from the river Sava to the Adriatic Sea, but does not effectively come into full power until 1322.

title: 1314

section: Events › Undated

section: Culture & Society

date: May 5

text: May 5 – The Istrian Demarcation, setting out the boundaries of disputed Italian territories in the Adriatic Sea peninsula of Istria (part of the modern-day Republic of Croatia), and confirms the agreement between the independent Italian states of Aquileia, Gorizia, and the Venetian Republic. The document is published in three languages (Latin, German and Croatian).

title: 1325

section: Events › April – June

date: May 7

text: May 7 – The Battle of Pola is fought in the Adriatic Sea between the navies of the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice. The Venetian fleet, commanded by Admiral Vettor Pisani loses 19 of its 25 galleys in the battle, but Genoese Admiral Luciano Doria is killed in the battle. One of Doria's lieutenants conceals the admiral's death from the rest of the sailors by donning the admiral's clothes. Admiral Pisani is put in prison upon his return to Venice, but later released when Genoa invades in the Battle of Chioggia.

title: 1379

section: Events › April–June

date: July 9

text: July 9 – The Republic of Venice, led by the Doge Michele Steno, gains control of both sides of the Adriatic Sea by purchasing the Dalmatian coast (bordered in modern times by Slovenia and Croatia) from King Ladislaus the Magnanimous, ruler of the Kingdom of Naples for 100,000 ducats, or 350 kilograms of gold.

title: 1409

section: Events › July–September

date: April 13

text: April 13 – Sandalj Hranić, Duke of Bosnia, sells the Croatian coastal town of Ostrovica to the Republic of Venice, giving the Venetians further control of the Dalmatian Coast and both sides of the Adriatic Sea.

title: 1411

date: February 8

text: February 8 – Admiral Pietro Loredan of the Republic of Venice is assigned to carry out the conquest of Dalmatia (later part of Croatia) across the Adriatic Sea.

title: 1420

section: Events › January–March

date: April 12

text: April 12 – In a battle on Lake Garda in Italy, a passage to the Adriatic Sea, ships from the Duchy of Milan defeat those of the Republic of Venice in battle and take control of the lake.

title: 1439

date: April 18

text: April 18 – Captain Andrea Loredan of the Republic of Venice departs southward on the Adriatic Sea on a large, heavily-armed warship with a crew of 450, with a mission of locating the Spanish Navarrese pirate Pedro Navarro.

title: 1497

date: March 18

text: March 18 – The electors of the Republic of Venice (which includes not only a large part of northern Italy around the city of Venice, but portions of Eastern Europe along the Adriatic Sea) elect Francesco Loredan as their new executive, the Doge. Loredan's election comes 11 days after the death of the previous Doge, Pietro Grimani, but is not announced until after Easter Sunday.

title: 1752


slug: adriatic

label: Adriatic

year_label: 390 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

date: July 18

text: July 18 – Battle of the Allia: Brennus, a chieftain of the Senones of the Adriatic coast of Italy, leads an army of Cisalpine Gauls in their attack on Rome. They capture the entire city of Rome except for the Capitoline Hill, which is successfully held against them. However, seeing their city devastated, the Romans attempt to buy their salvation from Brennus. The Romans agree to pay one thousand pounds weight of gold.

title: 390 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 387 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: With the aid of the Lucanians, Dionysius I of Syracuse devastates the territories of Thurii, Crotone, and Locri in mainland Italy. When Rhegium falls, Dionysius becomes the chief power in Greek Southern Italy. He then turns his attention to the Adriatic and founds the colonies of Ancona (Ankon) and Adria (Adrìa).

title: 387 BC

section: Events › By place › Sicily and Adriatic

year_label: 386 BCE

text: Dionysius I of Syracuse extends the influence and trade of Syracuse to the Adriatic, establishing colonies at Adria, Ancona and Issa.

title: 386 BC

section: Events › By place › Sicily

year_label: 313 BCE

text: Cassander, hearing of Aristodemus' success with the Aetolians, marches south in force, persuades the Acarnanians to ally with him, and campaigns successfully along the Adriatic coast; capturing Apollonia and defeating the Illyrian king Glaucius. At the end of the year Cassander returns to Macedon.

title: 313 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 304 BCE

text: The tyrant Agathocles of Syracuse takes on the title of King of Sicily. He extends his influence into southern Italy and the Adriatic.

title: 304 BC

year_label: 284 BCE

text: The Gallic tribe called the Senones, who have settled on the Adriatic coast north of Picenum, attack Arretium in Etruria. While attempting to relieve this allied city, the Romans under the command of Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter suffer a costly defeat in the Battle of Arretium. Aroused by this disaster, a Roman army under Manius Curius Dentatus invades the Senones' territory, defeating them and driving them out of the Italian peninsula.

title: 284 BC

year_label: 230 BCE

text: King Agron of Illyria dies. Pinnes, the son of Agron and Agron's first wife Triteuta, officially succeeds his father as king, but the kingdom is effectively ruled by Agron's second wife, Queen Teuta (Tefta), who expels the Greeks from the Illyrian coast and then launches Illyrian pirate ships into the Ionian Sea, preying on Roman shipping. She continues her husband's policy of attacking cities on the west coast of Greece and practising large-scale piracy in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas.

title: 230 BC

year_label: 214 BCE

text: Upon receiving word from Oricum of Philip V's actions in Illyria, Roman propraetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus crosses the Adriatic with his fleet and army. Landing at Oricum, Laevinus is able to retake the town with little fighting.

title: 214 BC

year_label: 187 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The construction of the Via Aemilia, a trunk road in the north Italian plains, running from Ariminum (Rimini), on the Adriatic coast, to Placentia (Piacenza) on the river Padus (Po), is completed.

title: 187 BC

year_label: 184 BCE

text: The town of Pisaurum is established by the Romans as a colony in the territory of the Picentes, a tribe living in the Marche on the Adriatic.

title: 184 BC