slug: reims-cathedral

label: Reims Cathedral

description: Roman Catholic cathedral of Reims in France

text: The 13-year-old Charles III (the Simple), the posthumous son of Louis the Stammerer, is crowned king of the West Frankish Kingdom at the Reims Cathedral—though he is not recognized as such by King Odo (or Eudes) until 898.

title: 893

date: May 14

text: May 14 – King Robert II of France ("the Pious") sues for peace with his sons. Henry I is crowned co-king of France at Reims Cathedral, but has little power to rule (until 1031).

title: 1027

section: Events › By Place › Europe

date: April 14

text: April 14 – Following the Capetian tradition, King Louis VI (the Fat) has his eldest son Philip crowned as co-ruler of France at Rheims Cathedral. Louis himself becomes the national protector of all France.

title: 1129

text: Archbishop Aubrey (or 'Alberic of Humbert') lays the first stone of the chevet of Reims Cathedral.

title: 1211

section: Events › By topic › Religion

date: August 6

text: August 6 – The coronation of King Louis VIII of France takes place at the Reims Cathedral.

title: 1223

section: Events › July–September

date: November 29

text: November 29 – The coronation of Louis IX as King of France takes place at the Reims Cathedral at the direction of Queen Blanche, who also orders the defeated French nobles from the Albigensian Crusade to swear allegiance to her son.

title: 1226

section: Events › October – December

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: July 24

text: July 24 – Fire destroys the roof and the spires of Reims Cathedral.

title: 1481

date: May 27

text: May 27 – The formal coronation of King Louis XII in France takes place at the Reims Cathedral.

title: 1498

date: July 25

text: July 25 – The coronation of Henri II as King of France at the Reims Cathedral.

title: 1547

date: February 13

text: February 13 – The formal coronation of Henry III as King of France takes place at the Reims Cathedral. Henry inherited the throne on May 30, 1574, upon the death of his older brother, Charles IX. He marries Louise of Lorraine.

title: 1575

section: Events › January–March

date: May 29

text: May 29 – The Coronation of Charles X takes place at the historic site of Reims Cathedral, the last coronation of a French monarch.

title: 1825


slug: reims

label: Reims

description: city in Marne, France

section: Conflict & Security

text: Battle of Reims: Julian is defeated by the Alemanni at Reims (Gaul).

title: 356

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Attila's forces invade Gaul and sack Metz. The major cities of Strasbourg, Worms, Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Reims, Tournai, Cambrai, Amiens and Beauvais are destroyed by the Huns.

title: 451

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Deaths

text: King Chlothar I annexes the Frankish territories of Metz and Reims, after the death of his great-nephew Theudebald.

title: 555

text: November 29 – King Chlothar I ("the Old") dies at Compiègne at age 64. The Merovingian dynasty is continued by his four sons (Charibert I, Guntram, Sigebert I and Chilperic I), who divide the Frankish Kingdom and rule from the capitals at Paris, Orléans, Reims and Soissons, respectively.

title: 561

text: King Sigebert I repels an attack on Austrasia by the Avars at Regensburg (Germany). He moves his capital from Reims to Metz (approximate date).

title: 562

section: Religion & Belief

text: Egidius, bishop of Reims, is tried at Metz before a council of bishops for a conspiracy against King Childebert II; he is found guilty and exiled to Strasbourg.

title: 590

text: Summer – Eudes of Aquitaine heads for the Frankish city of Reims, to warn Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, of the Umayyad invasion in Gaul, and ask for his support against the invaders. The two leaders meet near Paris; Charles issues a 'general ban' to raise an army, which includes large numbers of Austrasians, Neustrians, and Burgundians. Meanwhile, Arabians ravage the cities of Périgueux, Saintes, and Angoulême, then sack the basilica of Saint-Hilaire outside Poitiers.

title: 732

date: October 5

text: October 5 – King Louis the Pious (son of Charlemagne) is crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, by Pope Stephen IV at Reims. He also crowns the emperor's wife Ermengarde as Holy Roman Empress. The ceremony in Reims re-establishes the principle of papal supremacy, by recognising the importance of the pope in imperial coronations. Louis gives the pope many gifts, including the estate tax Vendeuvre, near Troyes (Northern France).

title: 816

text: King Odo (or Eudes) takes a large army against Rheims, and forces anti-king Charles the Simple to flee to Germany. King Arnulf of Carinthia, throwing off his agreements with Odo, charges his illegitimate son Zwentibold to invade the West Frankish Kingdom, and re-install Charles on the throne.

title: 895

text: Summer – The West Frankish nobles revolt and depose King Charles III (the Simple) after a 24-year reign. He seeks refuge in Lotharingia and is replaced by Robert I, a brother of the late King Odo, who is crowned king of the West Frankish Kingdom in the cathedral at Rheims.

title: 922

text: King Rudolph I loses the support of Herbert II, count of Vermandois, who controls the prison at Péronne in which former King Charles III (the Simple) is imprisoned. Herbert brings him before William I (Longsword), count of Rouen, for homage and then to Rheims as leverage to blackmail Rudolph to make him cede sovereignty over Laon (Northern France).

title: 928

text: Summer – King Otto I invades the West Frankish Kingdom with an expeditionary force, but his armies are not strong enough to take the key cities of Laon, Reims and Paris. After three months, Otto ends his campaign without defeating his rival Hugh the Great. He manages to depose Hugh of Vermandois from his position as archbishop of Reims, restoring Artald of Reims to his former office.

title: 946

text: Summer – The Hungarians plunder the surroundings of Laon, Reims, Chalon, Metz, and Gorze. After that, they return to Burgundy. In Provence, the Hungarians battle with the Moors from the Muslim enclave of Fraxinet.

title: 954

text: Fall – Otto II invades the West Frankish Kingdom accompanied by Charles and ravages the cities of Reims, Soissons (where he halts at the Abbey of Saint Médard for devotions) and Laon. Lothair III escapes and flees to Paris, where he is besieged by imperial forces. Charles is proclaimed 'King of the Franks' by Dietrich I, bishop of Metz, at Laon.

title: 977

text: Summer – Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, captures the city of Reims by treachery of its new archbishop, Arnulf (the illegitimate son of the late King Lothair III). King Hugh I (Capet) demands that Pope John XV discipline Arnulf. But John XV, not wishing to defy Empress Theophanu, refuses.

title: 989

date: March 29

text: March 29: Bishop Adalberon imprisons the treasonous Duke Charles of Lorraine and his nephew Arnulf, the Archbishop of Reims. Adalberon delivers the two men to King Hugh Capet, who imprisons them and their family in Orléans. The cities of Reims and Laon are returned to Capet.

title: 991

section: Events

date: May 19

text: May 19 – King Henry I of France marries Anne of Kiev at the cathedral of Reims. William of Normandy marries Matilda of Flanders, daughter of Count Baldwin V, which Henry sees as a threat to his throne.

title: 1051

section: Events › By place › Continental Europe

date: November 1

text: November 1 – The 14-year-old Philip II is crowned at Rheims by Archbishop William of the White Hands. He becomes joint ruler of France, together with his father King Louis VII.

title: 1179

section: Culture & Society

text: The city of Tournai emits its first recorded life annuity, thus confirming a trend of consolidation of public debts started ten years earlier, in Reims.

title: 1228

section: Events › By topic › Markets

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The northern French city of Troyes issues its first recorded life annuities, confirming the trend of consolidation of local public debts initiated in 1218, by the neighboring city of Reims.

title: 1232

section: Economy & Finance

text: In Ghent, the first instance is recorded of emission of life annuities by a town in the Low Countries; this event confirms a trend of consolidation of local public debt in northwestern Europe, initiated in 1218 by Reims.

title: 1275

date: January 6

text: January 6 – The 17-year-old Philip IV (the Fair) is crowned king of France at Reims. He settles the Aragonese conflict, and intensifies his predecessors' efforts to reform and rationalize the administration of the realm. Philip persists in reforms, which strengthen the monarchy's position in Europe. The gabelle – a tax on salt in the form of a state monopoly – will become immensely unpopular and grossly unequal, but persist until 1790.

title: 1286

date: August 19

text: August 19 – King Louis X of France, nicknamed "Louis the Quarrelsome", marries the 22-year-old Clementia of Hungary, daughter of Charles Martel of Anjou (titular king of Hungary) following the death in prison of his uncrowned first wife, Margaret of Burgundy. Louis and Clementia are on August 24 crowned at Reims. Louis is the 12th Capetian ruler of France following the death nine months earlier of his father, Philip IV. After his coronation, Louis passes the throne of the Kingdom of Navarre to his younger brother, who becomes Philip II of Navarre, nicknamed "Philip the Tall".

title: 1315

section: Events › July – September

date: August 15

text: August 15 – The coronation of Louis XI as King of France takes place at Reims.

title: 1461

date: May 30

text: May 30 – The coronation of the 13-year-old son of the late Louis XI, Charles the Affable, as King of France takes place at Reims.

title: 1484

section: Events › April–June

date: September 21

text: September 21 – Francis II of France is crowned at Reims. The crown is too heavy for him, and has to be held in place by his nobles.

title: 1559

text: The Douay–Rheims Bible Old Testament translation from the Vulgate into English vol. 1 is published in Reims.

title: 1609

section: Events › Date unknown

date: June 3

text: June 3 – Louis XIV of France is crowned at Reims.

title: 1654

date: June 11

text: June 11 – Coronation of Louis XVI takes place in Reims. The last coronation of the Ancien Regime before the French Revolution

title: 1775

section: Events › January–June

date: July 16

text: July 16 – The Piper-Heidsieck Champagne house is founded by Florens-Louis Heidsieck in Reims, France.

title: 1785


slug: religion

label: Religion

description: social-cultural system

text: Patriarch Theophilus destroys all pagan temples in Alexandria under orders from Theodosius I. Christians go on an iconoclastic rampage, smashing religious symbols or monuments through the city and destroying the Temple of Serapis. The "Order of Monks" known as the Parabalani take charge of patrolling the streets.

title: 391

section: Events › By topic › Religion

date: May 26

text: May 26 – Battle of Vartanantz: King Yazdegerd II defeats the Armenian army (66,000 men) under their rebel leader Vartan Mamikonian on the Avarayr Plain (Armenia). Despite the loss of Mamikonian, who is killed, the Armenians consider this battle to have been a moral and religious victory, since Yazdegerd, out of respect for their efforts, allows them to remain Christian. The anniversary is a national and religious holiday.

title: 451

section: Events › By place › Persia

date: January 27

text: January 27 – Emperor Marcian dies at Constantinople, possibly of foot gangrene, an infection contracted during a long religious journey. He is buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, together with his late wife Pulcheria.

title: 457

text: The Armenians revolt against Persian rule, in an uprising that continues until 484. Led by Vahan Mamikonian, nephew of the late Vartan, they obtain religious and political freedom in return for military aid. Vahan is installed as governor (marzban).

title: 481

date: May 20

text: May 20 – Anastasius I marries Ariadne shortly after his accession. His reign is disturbed by religious distractions and a civil war started by Longinus, brother of late emperor Zeno.

title: 491

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Hilderic succeeds his uncle Thrasamund after a 27-year reign, and becomes king of the Vandals and Alans. He favours Catholicism and grants the inhabitants religious freedom.

title: 523

section: Events › By place › Africa

text: The Shariah enjoins women as well as men to obtain secular and religious educations. It forbids eating pork, domesticated donkey, and other flesh denied to Jews by Mosaic law (approximate date).

title: 628

section: Events › By topic › Education

text: King Frithuwold of Surrey flourishes under Mercian domination. The marriage of his daughter Osgyth to King Sighere of Essex breaks down. She desires the religious life, and flees the Essex court to the protection of bishop Bedwinus of North Elmham (Norfolk).

title: 673

section: Events › By place › Britain

text: Boniface makes Büraburg, a fortified Frankish settlement, his temporary religious base.

title: 723

text: Charlemagne meets Alcuin, Anglo-Saxon missionary, in Italy, and invites him to Aachen, where he becomes Charlemagne's chief adviser on religious and educational matters (approximate date).

title: 781

text: Charlemagne summons Alcuin, Anglo-Saxon missionary, to Aachen, and appoints him as chief adviser on religious and educational matters. He becomes the leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian court.

title: 782

text: Second Council of Nicaea: Empress Irene restores the veneration of icons (images of Christ and saints). This is a major victory of the monks, who will advance extensive claims to complete freedom for the Eastern Orthodox Church in religious matters. This ends the iconoclastic period in the Byzantine Empire.

title: AD 787

text: Louis I establishes himself at the imperial court of Aachen. He appoints Benedict of Aniane as his chief advisor on religious matters, and makes him abbot of Kornelimünster Abbey, which is founded by him.

title: 814


slug: rene-of-anjou

label: René of Anjou

description: king of Naples (1409-1480)

section: Births

date: January 16

text: January 16 – René of Anjou, king of Naples (d. 1480)

title: 1409

section: Conflict & Security

date: July 2

text: July 2 – In the Battle of Bulgnéville over who will be the next Duke of Lorraine, Count Antoine de Vaudémont, supported by Burgundian and English troops, defeats René of Anjou, who is supported by the Kingdom of France.

title: 1431

section: Events › July–September

section: Deaths

date: November 12

text: November 12 – René of Anjou becomes the new Count of Provence and Duke of Anjou, as well as a claimant to the title of King of Naples, upon the death of his brother, Louis III.

title: 1434

section: Events › October–December

date: February 2

text: February 2 – The Kingdom of Naples passes to René of Anjou.

title: 1435

section: Events › January–March

text: May 19 – René of Anjou, son of the late King Louis II of Valois-Anjou arrives in the Kingdom of Naples to take the vacant throne, reaching the Italian city ahead of King Alfonso V of Aragon, who also wants the throne. Alfonso makes plans to lay siege to the city of Naples.

title: 1438

date: June 2

text: June 2 – After a six-month siege, King Alfonso of Aragon proclaims himself King of Naples. Alfonso allows the French ruler, King René of Anjou, to return to France.

title: 1442

section: Religion & Belief

date: April 23

text: April 23 – King Henry VI of England marries Margaret of Anjou, daughter of René of Anjou, the former King of Naples, at a ceremony at Titchfield Abbey in Hampshire.

title: 1445

date: June 8

text: June 8 – The Pas de la Bergère tournament, later the subject of a poem by Louis de Beauvau, finishes after six days at Tarascon on the island of Jarnègues at the estate of the Duke René of Anjou.

title: 1449

date: May 28

text: May 28 – In Italy, King Ferdinand of Naples is forced to abandon the city of Venosa, the Albanian general Skanderbeg leads his cavalry in an attack on Venosa after an attack by the former king, Rene of Anjou and by General Jacopo Piccinino. Fleeing to Apulia, Ferdinand learns that the Albanian General Skanderbeg will soon arrive to fight the House of Anjou.

title: 1461


slug: republic-of-china

label: Republic of China

date: March 5

text: March 5 – Mao Bangchu, Republic of China air force general (died 1987)

title: 1904

section: Births › March

date: January 6

text: January 6 – The United Kingdom recognizes the People's Republic of China; the Republic of China severs diplomatic relations with Britain in response.

title: 1950

section: Events › January

date: August 5

text: August 5 – The Treaty of Taipei between Japan and the Republic of China goes into effect, officially ending the Second Sino-Japanese War.

title: 1952

section: Events › July–August

date: February 10

text: February 10 – The United States Seventh Fleet helps the Republic of China evacuate the Chinese Nationalist army and residents from the Tachen Islands to Taiwan.

title: 1955

section: Events › February

date: January 18

text: January 18–20 – Battle of Yijiangshan Islands: The Chinese Communist People's Liberation Army seizes the islands from the Republic of China (Taiwan).

title: 1955

date: August 23

text: August 23 – The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis begins with the People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army shelling the island of Kinmen (Quemoy) which is controlled by the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s Kuomintang forces.

title: 1958

section: Events › August

date: November 23

text: November 23 – The People's Republic of China takes the Republic of China's seat on the United Nations Security Council (see China and the United Nations).

title: 1971

section: Events › November

date: October 25

text: October 25 – The United Nations General Assembly admits the People's Republic of China and expels the Republic of China (or Taiwan).

title: 1971

section: Events › October

date: April 13

text: April 13 – The Universal Postal Union decides to recognize the People's Republic of China as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the Republic of China administering Taiwan.

title: 1972

section: Events › April

date: September 29

text: September 29 – China–Japan relations: The Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China is signed in Beijing, which normalizes Japanese diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China after breaking official ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan).

title: 1972

section: Events › September

date: January 13

text: January 13 – Vice-president Lee Teng-hui takes over as President of the Republic of China and Chairman of the Kuomintang following the death of Chiang Ching-kuo.

title: 1988

text: January 16 – In the general election of the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Democratic Progressive Party, led by Tsai Ing-wen, secured a majority in the Legislative Yuan, resulting in the first majority by a non-KMT party and the first majority won by the DPP. Tsai became the 14th President for Taiwan, and also became the first female leader in China.

title: 2016


slug: republic-of-florence

label: Republic of Florence

description: city-state on the Appenine Peninsula between 1115–1532/69

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Republic of Florence conquers the neighboring city of Montecascioli, as part of its effort to extend its domination over the contado (provinces of Italy).

title: 1113

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: The Republic of Venice pillages the islands of Rhodes, ravages Samos and Lesbos, and occupies Chios (controlled by the Byzantine Empire). The Republic of Florence sacks and conquers the neighboring independent republic of Fiesole in Italy.

title: 1125

text: A civil war breaks out in the Republic of Florence, between the Uberti Family and their consular opponent.

title: 1177

section: Events › Date unknown

date: August 29

text: August 29 – Battle of Montecatini: The Pisan army (some 20,000 men) led by Uguccione della Faggiuola defeats the allied forces of Florence and Naples. During the battle, Philip I manages to escape, but his son Charles of Taranto

title: 1315

section: Events › July – September

section: Culture & Society

text: The University of Florence is established by the Republic of Florence.

title: 1321

section: Events › By topic › Education

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Battle of Cascina: Forces of the Republic of Florence, led by Galeotto Malatesta, defeat those of Pisa.

title: 1364

section: Events › January–December

date: July 24

text: July 24 – Despite an appeal by Pope Gregory XI to cities in Tuscany to remain allied to the Catholic Church in a war with the Republic of Florence, the city of Pisa enters a defensive alliance with the Visconti family of Florence and supplies are sent by Florence for lance-bearing soldiers, as well as archers and infantry as part of a federation of Tuscan communes.

title: 1375

date: February 12

text: February 12 – English mercenary John Hawkwood, condottiero for Pope Gregory XI in the War of the Eight Saints against the Republic of Florence, arrives at Faenza to suppress a potential revolt against the papal governor. He and his soldiers, who were not paid by the Pope, go on to loot the town instead of protecting it.

title: 1376

date: July 21

text: July 21 – The Ciompi Revolt becomes violent in the Republic of Florence as a group of 64 discontented wool carders, led by Salvestro de' Medici, briefly take over the government of Florence and place Michele di Lando in the executive office.

title: 1378

date: April 11

text: April 11 – In order to prevent an attack by the Duchy of Milan, led by Lord Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Republic of Florence forms the League of Bologna, a defensive alliance with other Italian city-states of Bologna, Padua, Ferrara, Imola, Faenza and Ravenna.

title: 1392

section: Events › April–June

date: January 20

text: January 20 – A treaty halts the first of the Florentine–Milanese Wars after the Republic of Florence has liberated Padua from control by the Duchy of Milan. The treaty confirms the boundaries of Florence and Milan as they existed before the war, with the exception of Padua's new independence.

title: 1392

date: March 18

text: March 18 – The Duchy of Milan, led by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, declares war against the Republic of Florence, led by Chancellor Coluccio Salutati, on the Italian peninsula.

title: 1397

date: May 11

text: May 11 – The Treaty of Pavia is signed between the Republic of Florence and the Duchy of Milan to end the Mantuan War after 14 months.

title: 1398

text: Pisa is subjugated by Florence.

title: 1406

date: May 10

text: May 10 – In Italy's Republic of Florence, the republic is elevated to the level of an archdioese by Pope Martin V, who spent 18 months in Florence after being elected by the Council of Constance. In recognition of the hospitality accorded to him, Pope Martin names Bishop Amerigo Corsini to be the first Archbishop of Florence.

title: 1419

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: The first patent is issued by the Republic of Florence.

title: 1421

text: July 28 – The army of the Duchy of Milan, led by the Duke Filippo Maria Visconti, defeats the Republic of Florence's army, led by Carlo I Malatesta, in the Battle of Zagonara.

title: 1424

section: Events › July –September

date: June 1

text: June 1 – In the battle of San Romano, fought in Italy only 30 mi from the capital at Florence, the Republic of Florence cavalry and infantry, led by General Niccolò da Tolentino defeat the army of the Republic of Siena, led by Francesco Piccinino. The Renaissance painter Paolo Uccello later commemorates the event in a triptych painting.

title: 1432

date: April 9

text: April 9 – Treaty of Lodi: Francesco Sforza forms a triple alliance between the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Florence and Kingdom of Naples.

title: 1454

date: August 30

text: August 30 – The Italic League is concluded in Venice as an alliance between the Republic of Venice, the Papal States, the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Florence, and the Kingdom of Naples.

title: 1454

date: March 2

text: March 2 – After an agreement reached in Venice on August 30, the Italic League (Lega Italica) comes into being as a 25-year truce and mutual defense agreement between the Republic of Venice, the Papal States, the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Florence, and the Kingdom of Naples.

title: 1455

date: August 26

text: August 26 – In the Republic of Florence, an attempted coup d'etat against Piero di Cosimo de' Medici fails after his son Lorenzo discovers a roadblock that had been set by the conspirators to capture Medici during his planned trip to the Medici estate at Villa di Careggi.

title: 1466

date: June 16

text: June 16 – Volterra, a town in the Republic of Florence in Italy, surrenders after a siege of 25 days by Florentine soldiers under the command of Federico da Montefeltro. Because the town had rebelled against the power of Lorenzo de' Medici, da Montefeltro allows his soldiers on June 18 to pillage Volterra and to commit rape and murder of its citizens.

title: 1472

date: April 26

text: April 26 – On Easter Sunday, the Pazzi family attacks Lorenzo de' Medici, the ruler of the Republic of Florence, and kills his brother Giuliano, during High Mass in Florence Cathedral. A total of 80 accused conspirators are executed. With the death of his brother and co-ruler Giuliano, Lorenzo becomes the sole ruler of Florence.

title: 1478

date: March 17

text: March 17 – Lorenzo the Magnificent, Lord of the Republic of Florence, and King Ferrante of Naples agree to an alliance between the two Italian nations, and to end the ongoing war that had started in 1479. Lorenzo had traveled to Naples in December to reach a treaty to end the war.

title: 1480

date: June 20

text: June 20 – Niccolò Machiavelli, who will later be the author of the influential political theory guide The Prince, is elected by the Great Council of Florence as the Secretary of the Second Chancellery of the Republic of Florence.

title: 1498

date: June 29

text: June 29 – A combined force of troops from the Kingdom of France and from the Republic of Florence lay siege to the city of Pisa.

title: 1500

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: January 17

text: January 17 – Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, on board La Dauphine in the service of Francis I of France, sets out from Madeira for the New World, to seek out a western sea route to the Pacific Ocean.

title: 1524

date: May 22

text: May 22 – Francis repudiates the Treaty of Madrid and forms the League of Cognac against Charles, including Pope Clement VII, Milan, Venice, and Florence.

title: 1526

date: May 16

text: May 16 – In Florence, the Piagnon, a group devoted to the memory of Girolamo Savonarola, drive out the Medici for a second time, re-establishing the Republic of Florence until 1530.

title: 1527

date: April 27

text: April 27 – The democratic government of the Republic of Florence in Italy, in existence for more than 400 years since its founding in 1115, is abolished by order of Pope Clement VII in order for a hereditary, and absolute, monarchy to be established. Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, the illegitimate son of Pope Clement, is given full power and the Republic's parliament (the Signoria) and the rule of the executive officer, the Gonfaloniere, come to an end.

title: 1532

date: August 2

text: August 2 – The battle of Montemurlo, an attempt by residents of the former Republic of Florence to overthrow Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence and restore the republican government, ends in failure. The Medici family then takes revenge on the supporters of the Republic, including the Republic commander, General Piero Strozzi.

title: 1537


slug: republic-of-genoa

label: Republic of Genoa

description: medieval and early modern maritime republic from (1005-1797)

section: Conflict & Security

text: Spring – The Republic of Pisa conducts a military offensive against the Saracen strongholds in Southern Italy. The Pisan fleet sacks the city of Reggio Calabria. Pisa becomes one of the four commercial Maritime Republics (the other three are Genoa, Venice and Amalfi), which fight each other for control of the Mediterranean Sea.

title: 1005

text: The Pisan and the Genoese republics launch a naval offensive against the Muslim strongholds of Sardinia, in particular Porto Torres, and defeat the fleet of the taifa king of Dénia, Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī.

title: 1016

text: The Republic of Genoa, jealous of the recent successes of its former allies, launches a naval assault on the Republic of Pisa.

title: 1066

section: Events › Europe

text: Mahdia campaign: The navies of Genoa and Pisa take the capital of the Zirids, and occupy Mahdia for a year. Subsequently, both republics obtain trading privileges.

title: 1087

section: Events › By place › Africa

date: July 14

text: July 14 – Donation of Altavilla: Bohemond I grants commercial privileges and the right to use warehouses (fondaco) to the Republic of Genoa. This marks the beginning of Italian merchant settlements in the Levant.

title: 1098

section: Events › By place › First Crusade

date: August 1

text: August 1 – A Genoese fleet leaves Italy to support the Crusaders' efforts to conquer the coastal cities; the ships reach Latakia on September 25.

title: 1100

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: Spring – King Baldwin I concludes an alliance with the Genoese fleet, offering them commercial privileges and booty. He captures the towns of Arsuf and Caesarea. Baldwin's crusaders pillage Caesarea and massacre the majority of the local population.

title: 1101

text: Summer – The Byzantines re-occupy the Cilician cities of Tarsus, Adana and Mamistra. A naval squadron, under Admiral Cantacuzenus, pursues in Cypriot waters a Genoese raiding fleet, and sails on to Latakia, where they capture the harbour and the lower city. Bohemond I reinforces the garrison in the citadel.

title: 1104

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

section: Deaths

date: July 12

text: July 12 – Siege of Tripoli: After a 7-year siege (supported by the Genoese fleet), Tripoli falls to the Crusaders. Fakhr al-Mulk ibn Ammar, qadi of Tripoli, submits to Bertrand of Toulouse (the eldest son of Raymond IV). He establishes the County of Tripoli, the fourth Crusader state in the Middle East. Raymond's nephew William II Jordan dies of an arrow wound sustained during the siege, leaving Bertrand as its sole ruler.

title: 1109

date: February

text: February–May – Crusaders under Baldwin I besiege Beirut. Genoese and Pisan ships blockade the harbour; Fatimid ships from Tyre and Sidon try in vain to break the blockade. The Fatimid governor flees by night through the Italian fleet to Cyprus. On May 13, Baldwin captures the city by assault and the Italians carry out a massacre among the inhabitants.

title: 1110

text: The city of Béjaïa (modern Algeria) repels a Genoan naval assault.

title: 1136

text: In the first commercial treaty between the Almohad Caliphate and a Christian power, the Republic of Genoa obtains trading rights in the port of North Africa.

title: 1137

text: The Republic of Genoa raids the Muslim-held Balearic Islands. The Republic of Pisa protests officially – seeing the islands as rightfully theirs. The Genoese then proceed to lay siege to Almería, in vain.

title: 1146

date: July 17

text: July 17 – King Alfonso VII of León and Castile, leads a campaign at the head of mixed armies of Catalonia, Genoa, Pisa and France. He besieges Almería in southern Al-Andalus (modern Spain); a Genoese fleet of 63 galleys and 163 other vessels, blockade the Almoravid-held port, which is captured after a 2-month siege on October 17.

title: 1147

text: The Italian 'naval republics' of Genoa, Pisa and Venice finance their expanding trade within and outside Europe – trade which includes an arms industry for manufactures and merchants alike (approximate date).

title: 1149

text: Confronted with important financial difficulty due to the expenses of the Spanish crusade, the Republic of Genoa has to sell a third of the city of Tortosa (which they had conquered in 1148 during an expedition against the Almoravids) to Ramon Berenguer IV, count of Barcelona.

title: 1153

text: Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos asks Venice to help pay the costs of defending Sicily, whose Norman rulers have had good relations with Venice. Doge Vitale II Michiel refuses to pay the requested subsidy. Manuel begins to cultivate relationships with the main commercial rivals of Venice: Genoa and Pisa. He grants them their own trade quarters in Constantinople, very near the Venetian settlements.

title: 1166

date: April

text: April – Massacre of the Latins: The Eastern Orthodox inhabitants of Constantinople massacre the Venetian, Genoan, and other Latin officials and traders who rule as agents of Empress Maria of Antioch. She is the mother and regent of 12-year-old Emperor Alexios II.

title: 1182

section: Religion & Belief

text: Genoa takes Bonifacio (in Corsica) from Pisa. Pope Gregory VIII reconciles the differences between the states so that both may be used to expedite shipments to the Holy Land.

title: 1187

text: London adopts the Cross of St. George, the red cross on a white background. The flag is also used by the fleet of Genoa, and allows the ships from London to use the flag for protection when they enter the Mediterranean on trading missions.

title: 1190

section: Events › By place › Europe › England

date: November 20

text: November 20 – Emperor Henry VI enforces the inheritance claims by his wife, Constance I, against her illegitimate nephew, King Tancred of Lecce (who died on February 20). He takes Palermo (supported by the navy of Pisa and Genoa) and gains control of all of Sicily – ending Norman rule in Italy after 90 years.

title: 1194

text: Spring – Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat, sends envoys to Venice, Genoa and other city-states to negotiate a contract for transport to the Levant. Meanwhile, Boniface and various nobles are mustering an expeditionary army (mainly forces from France and the Holy Roman Empire) at Paris. On February 23, Baldwin IX, count of Flanders and his brother Henry of Flanders take the cross at Bruges (modern Belgium), and agree to take part in the Fourth Crusade called by Pope Innocent III (see 1199).

title: 1200

date: May

text: May – Pope Innocent III travels to Perugia to try to settle the long feud between Genoa and Pisa, that both states might contribute to the transport of the Fifth Crusade. There, after a short illness, Innocent dies on July 16. Two days after his death the aged Cardinal Cencio Savelli (later Honorius III) is elected as the 177th pope of the Catholic Church.

title: 1216

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Summer – Various groups of French knights reach the Italian ports. King Andrew II of Hungary arrives with his army in Split, in Dalmatia. He is joined by German forces, led by Duke Leopold VI (the Glorious). At the end of July, Pope Honorius III orders the crusaders assembled in Italy and Sicily to proceed to Cyprus, but there is no transport provided by the Italian city-states, Venice, Genoa and Pisa.

title: 1217

section: Events › Fifth Crusade

date: June 15

text: June 15 – Battle of Agridi: The Cypriot army under King Henry I ("the Fat") defeats the Lombard forces of Emperor Frederick II. After the battle, John of Beirut (supported by funds from Henry), hires 13 Genoese war-galleys to aid in the siege of Kyrenia.

title: 1232

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: Spring – A fleet consisting of ships from the republics of Venice, Genoa and Pisa arrive at Constantinople. It is headed by Geoffrey II of Villehardouin, ruler of Achaea, who brings 100 of his own knights, 300 cross-bowman, and 500 archers. Geoffrey, formally a vassal of Emperor John I of Constantinople, breaks the blockade of the city, sinks 15 Byzantine ships and enters the Golden Horn. A treaty is signed for two years after the intervention of Angelo Sanudo, duke of Archipelago.

title: 1236

text: May – Battle of Giglio: an Imperial fleet defeats a Genoan fleet in the Tyrrhenian Sea.

title: 1241

section: Events

text: War of Saint Sabas: A dispute between Venice and Genoa arises about concerning land in Acre owned by Mar Saba but claimed by both Venice and Genoa – which leads to a Genoese attack of the monastery in the Venetian quarter. The Venetians are supported by Pisa and the Knights Templar, while the Genoese are joined by the Knights Hospitaller.

title: 1256

section: Economy & Finance

text: The Republic of Genoa starts imposing forced loans, known as luoghi, onto its taxpayers; they are a common resource of medieval public finance.

title: 1258

section: Events › By topic › Markets

date: March 13

text: March 13 – Treaty of Nymphaeum: Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos signs a trade and defense agreement with the Republic of Genoa, to counterweight the Venetian presence in the region. Genoa agrees to ally with the Empire of Nicaea, by providing a fleet of up to 50 galleys during the projected Nicaean siege of Constantinople, while 16 galleys are to be immediately sent against the Latin Empire.

title: 1261

text: Spring – Genoa orders Admiral Benedetto Zaccaria to send five galleys to support Genoese suzerainty of Tripoli. Princess Lucia, sister of the late Count Bohemond VII, arrives in Acre, where the Knights Hospitaller escort her to the frontier with Tripoli. The commune refuses to accept her as new ruler and places the city under Genoese protection. After negotiations, Lucia offers to confirm Genoa's existing commercial privileges in Tripoli.

title: 1288

date: June 11

text: June 11 – Battle of Campaldino: Pro-papal Guelph forces of Florence and their allies, Lucca, Pistoia, Prato and Siena under Viscount Aimery IV defeat the Ghibelline army (some 10,000 men) in Tuscany. Florence becomes the dominant power in Central Italy; powerful merchant guilds take on a more political role in the communal government against their rivals of Genoa, Pisa and Venice.

title: 1289

date: June

text: June – Genoa concludes a new commercial treaty with the Mamluks; five galleys sent by King James II of Aragon ("the Just") join the Venetian Crusader fleet (some 20 ships) on its way to Acre. On board the fleet are Italian urban militias and mercenary forces under Seneschal Jean I de Grailly, who have fought for the Papal States in the so-called Italian Crusades.

title: 1290

text: Spring – The brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, Italian explorers and merchants from Genoa, embark with two galleys intending to reach India and establish a trade route to Italy. They sail along the coast of present-day Morocco after passing through the Strait of Gibraltar. They may have followed the African coast as far as Cape Non before being lost at sea.

title: 1291

section: Events › By topic › Exploration

date: July 22

text: July 22 – War of Curzola: Genoese raids on the Venetian quarter in Constantinople lead to a formal declaration of war with the Republic of Venice. A Venetian fleet (some 40 war galleys) attacks Galata, the quarter of the Genoese merchants. Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos arrests surviving Venetians in the capital and joins the war with the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1295

text: Boniface VIII attempts to end the rivalry between Genoa and Pisa over the Tyrrhenian islands of Sardinia and Corsica, naming King James II of Aragon ("the Just") as regent of the islands.

title: 1297

date: July 31

text: July 31 – Pisa and Genoa agree to a thirty-year truce. Part of the treaty includes the end of the Pisan military support to Genoa's enemies in Corsica.

title: 1299

date: April 10

text: April 10 – In the Principality of Monaco, the first Grimaldi family ruler, Rainier I, is forced to flee as troops from the Republic of Genoa besiege the Monacans. The Genoese rule will last for more than 30 years, until September 12, 1331.

title: 1301

section: Events › April– June

section: Births

text: Leonardo di Montaldo, doge of Genoa (d. 1384)

title: 1319

date: June 24

text: June 24 – Hundred Years' War: Battle of Sluys – The English fleet, under the command of Edward III of England, battles the French fleet, under that of Admiral Hugues Quiéret and treasurer Nicolas Béhuchet, assisted by Genoese mercenary galleys under Egidio Bocanegra, on the Low Countries coast. The French fleet is virtually destroyed, and both of its commanders are killed.

title: 1340

text: June 15 – Genoese forces led by Simone Vignoso land on the Mediterranean island of Chios and capture it from local Greek control within a week, apart from the Castle of Chios, which resists until 12 September.

title: 1346

text: February 26 – The Maona of Chios and Phocaea is formed to manage the overseas possessions of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1347

text: November 17 – To pay for the expenses of the revived war with the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa has to subscribe a loan at an interest rate of 10%, from an association of creditors known as the Compera imposita per gerra Venetorum.

title: 1350

text: August 16 – War of the Straits: The Venetian-ruled town of Poreč is sacked by the Genoese under Paganino Doria, who carry off the relics of saints Eleutherius and Maurus of Parentium to Genoa, where they were deposited at the church of San Matteo.

title: 1354

text: February 16 – King Edward III of England appoints Lord Salisbury to command a fleet of English and Genoese galleys and 1,700 soldiers to fight in the Duchy of Brittany.

title: 1373

text: February 3 –After invading Cyprus, the Republic of Genoa bombards the city of Kyrenia, but the Cypriots repel the invasion and force the Genoese to retreat to Nicosia.

title: 1374

text: August 12 – With the help of the Genoese, Byzantine co-emperor Andronicus IV Palaeologus invades Constantinople and dethrones his father, John V Palaeologus, as co-emperor. John V Palaeologus is taken prisoner.

title: 1376

text: June 17 – In the wake of the recent defeat of the Genoese Navy at the battle of Capo d'Anzio, Domenico di Campofregoso, Doge of the Republic of Genoa, is removed from office by the Genoese Senate and replaced by Nicolò Guarco.

title: 1378

text: May 30 – The War of Chioggia begins on the Italian peninsula between the navies of the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa, with a surprise attack on 11 Genoese galleys at Capo d'Anzio by a 10-galley fleet led by Venetian Admiral Vettor Pisani. Venice captures five of the Genoese ships and takes their crews as prisoners of war, including the Genoese admiral, Luigi de' Fieschi.

title: 1378

text: August 16 – The Republic of Genoa, led by the Doge Nicolò Guarco and its allies from Hungary and Padua, captures Venice's port of Chioggia and seize the Venetian Army garrison there and soon threaten to take Venice and the Venetian Republic. An attempt by the Venetian Senate to apply for peace is rejected as Genoa demands a full surrender, and the Venetians resolve to fight, releasing Admiral Pisani from prison.

title: 1379

text: May 7 – The Battle of Pola is fought in the Adriatic Sea between the navies of the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice. The Venetian fleet, commanded by Admiral Vettor Pisani loses 19 of its 25 galleys in the battle, but Genoese Admiral Luciano Doria is killed in the battle. One of Doria's lieutenants conceals the admiral's death from the rest of the sailors by donning the admiral's clothes. Admiral Pisani is put in prison upon his return to Venice, but later released when Genoa invades in the Battle of Chioggia.

title: 1379

text: January 1 – The Republic of Venice's Admiral Carlo Zeno returns to Venice with 18 ships, after the city is on the verge of falling to conquest by the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1380

text: June 24 – At the Battle of Chioggia, the navy of the Republic of Venice, with 48 galleys, defeats the invading fleet of the Republic of Genoa, clearing a blockade of the Venetian harbor, regaining control of the Adriatic Sea, and beginning the dominance of the Venetian Navy. Venice supplements its fleet with the capture of 17 of Genoa's ships.

title: 1380

text: August 8 – The Treaty of Turin is signed between the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa to end the three-year War of Chioggia against Genoa, on terms favorable to Venice. The settlement comes more than a year after Venice's triumph in the Battle of Chioggia on June 24, 1380.

title: 1381

text: October 13 – While being held as a prisoner in the Republic of Genoa, Jacques de Lusignan is elected by a parliament of Cypriot nobles to succeed his nephew, Peter II (who died on September 9), as King of Cyprus.

title: 1382

text: April 7 – Nicolò Guarco is deposed as Doge of the Republic of Genoa and is replaced by Federico di Pagana, who in is forced to resign at the end of the day in favor of Leonardo Montaldo.

title: 1383

text: August 5 – An earthquake strikes the island of Lesbos in Greece, killing numerous people including the Genoan Lord of Lesbos, Francesco I Gattilusio, along with his two eldest sons, Andronico and Domenico. His son Jacopo Gattiliuso survives and rules the island under the name Francesco II.

title: 1384

text: June 15 – Antoniotto I Adorno is elected as Doge of the Republic of Genoa following the death of the Doge Leonardo Montaldo from bubonic plague the day before. Adorno serves as the Republic's chief executive until 1390.

title: 1384

text: May 17– At Caffa, one of the Balkan colonies of the Republic of Genoa, the Genoese Army thwarts an attack at Solkhat (Sorcati) by the Tatars.

title: 1387

text: September 10 – In Greece, Andronikos Asen Zaccaria, chief law enforcement officer of the Principality of Achaea, ruled by the Republic of Genoa, imprisons the Duke of Athens, Nerio Acciaioli, after the Navarrese commander Pedro de San Superano had invited Acciaioli to discuss peace.

title: 1389

text: April 6 – Antoniotto Adorno returns to office as Doge of the Republic of Genoa after persuading Doge Giacomo Fregoso (who had replaced him eight months earlier) to resign.

title: 1391

text: June 16 – Antoniotto di Montaldo is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa upon the resignation of Antoniotto Adorno.

title: 1392

text: France conquers the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1396

text: December 30 – Waleran III of Luxembourg, becomes the French Governor of the former Republic of Genoa.

title: 1396

text: November 27 – Antoniotto I Adorno, Doge of the Republic of Genoa, voluntarily steps down and turns control of the republic over to France's King Charles VI. King Charles then appoints Adorno as the governor of French-ruled Genoa.

title: 1396

text: The Republic of Genoa regains control of Monaco.

title: 1402

text: November 5 – The Republic of Genoa resumes control of Monaco, deposing Louis Grimaldi. Genoese control lasts for more than 16 years.

title: 1402

text: October 7 – Battle of Modon: The Genoese fleet under Jean Le Maingre (Marshal Boucicaut) is defeated by the Republic of Venice, at Modon in the Peloponnese.

title: 1403

text: April 23 – The Banco di San Giorgio is founded by the government of the Republic of Genoa in Italy.

title: 1407

text: March 27 – The Republic of Genoa regains its independence after having been a territory of the Kingdom of France since 1396, and Giorgio Adorno is elected as the Doge for life. He will die after slightly less than two years in office.

title: 1413

text: March 29 – Barnaba Guano is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1415

text: August 21 – The navy of the Republic of Venice, commanded by Admiral Pietro Loredan, gains a major victory over the Republic of Genoa in a battle off of the coast of Rapallo, but fails to overthrow the Doge Battista Spinola

title: 1431

text: March 28 – In Italy, the Republic of Genoa is revived after having been under the control of the Duchy of Milan for almost 15 years, and the 56-year-old mercenary leader Isnardo Guarco is elected as the Doge of Genoa, with a lifetime appointment, but is deposed only one week later.

title: 1436

text: March 24– In Italy, Tomaso di Campofregoso, the Doge of the Republic of Genoa is forced to step down in favor of his brother, Battista di Campofregoso, however, changes his mind later in the day and Tomaso is re-installed as the doge.

title: 1437

text: December 18 – In Italy Tomaso di Campofregoso, Doge of the Republic of Genoa, is removed from office by a group of armed men, led by Raffaele Adorno and Giovanni Antonio Fieschi, who invade the Ducal Palace and force him to leave.

title: 1442

text: January 28 – Raffaele Adorno was elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1443

text: December 16 – Lodovico di Campofregoso becomes the Doge of the Republic of Genoa, succeeding his older brother, Giano I, who had taken office "for life

title: 1447

text: January 4 – Barnaba Adorno becomes the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa when his cousin Raffaele Adorno steps down after slightly less than four years in office. Baranaba holds the office for only a few weeks before being forced by the Adorno family's rivals, the Campofregoso family to flee the Doge's Palace on January 29.

title: 1447

text: September 8 – Pietro di Campofregoso is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa following the abdication of his cousin, Lodovico di Campofregoso.

title: 1450

text: July 18 – In the Republic of Genoa in Italy, Spinetta Fregoso is elected by the republic's council as the new chief executive, the Doge. He remains in office for only six days before being forced to surrender to Lodovico di Campofregoso.

title: 1461

text: May 13 – Christopher Columbus, an experienced mariner and successful trader in the thriving Genoese expatriate community in Portugal, marries Felipa Perestrelo Moniz (Italian on her father's side), and receives as dowry her late father's maps and papers, charting the seas and winds around the Madeira Islands, and other Portuguese possessions in the Ocean Sea.

title: 1479

text: May 2 – At the Battle of Rapallo, 11 ships of the Republic of Genoa Navy commanded by Francesco Spinola and Fabrizio Giustiniani, defeat a French 11-ship force led by Louis de Miolans, who is taken prisoner of war when he and his ships are all captured. Rapallo, captured by the French a year earlier, is retaken by Genoa and 300 women held hostage by the French are freed.

title: 1495

text: March 28 – The revolutionary council of the Republic of Genoa declares a war against French invaders.

title: 1507

text: July – The Holy League, formed to defend the Italian States, attacks French-occupied Genoa. The 1510 influenza pandemic reaches Sicily, where it is nicknamed coccolucio, before spreading to the Italian states and the rest of Europe.

title: 1510

text: June 29 – Giano II di Campofregoso was elected as the Doge of the Republic of Genoa in Italy after the withdrawal of French occupation troops, filling a vacancy that had existed since 1507.

title: 1512

text: June 20 – Ottaviano Fregoso becomes the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, replacing Giano II di Campofregoso.

title: 1513

text: May 25 – Giano II di Campofregoso resigns as Doge of the Republic of Genoa as plots by two opposing families restore the influence of France. Campogregoso leaves the city on a ship to serve the Republic of Venice in its war against the Duchy of Milan.

title: 1513

text: January 4 – Giannandrea Giustiniani Longo is elected to a two year term as Doge of the Republic of Genoa in Italy, succeeding Giovanni Battista Doria.

title: 1539

text: January 4 – Leonardo Cattaneo della Volta is elected to a two-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, succeeding Giannandrea Giustiniani Longo

title: 1541

text: September 28 – King Charles of Spain begins the disastrous campaign against the Regency of Algiers as he assembles a fleet of 500 ships, with 24,000 soldiers, at the Spanish island of Majorca and prepares to cross the Mediterranean with the fleets of allied nations led by the Admiral Andrea Doria of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1541

text: January 4 – Andrea Centurione Pietrasanta begins a two-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, replacing Leonardo Cattaneo della Volta.

title: 1543

text: January 4 – Gaspare Grimaldi Bracelli begins a two-year term as the Doge of the Republic of Genoa in Italy, succeeding Benedetto Gentile Pevere.

title: 1549

text: January 4 – Luca Spinola is elected to a two-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, succeeding Gaspare Grimaldi Bracelli.

title: 1551

text: January 4 – Pietro Giovanni Chiavica Cibo becomes the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa for a term of 2 years as the term of the Doge Agostino Pinelli Ardimenti comes to an end.

title: 1557

text: January 4 – Paolo Battista Giudice Calvi is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, but serves for only eight months before dying in September.

title: 1561

text: October 7 – Giovanni Battista Lercari is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1563

text: October 11 – Ottavio Gentile Oderico is elected to a two-year term as the Doge of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1565

text: May 25 – The Holy League is established as an alliance of the Papal States, the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Urbino, the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily under the rule of the Spanish Empire and the Knights of Malta for mutual defense against attacks by the Ottoman Empire on ships in the Mediterranean Sea.

title: 1571

text: October 19 – In Italy, Giovanni Battista Gentile Pignolo is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa for a two-year term, replacing Prospero Centurione Fattinanti.

title: 1577

text: October 20 – Nicolò Doria is elected to a two-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa. Sergio Buonadonna and Mario Marcenaro, Rosso Doge: I dogi della Repubblica di Genova dal 1339 al 1797 (De Ferrari Press, 2000).

title: 1579

text: November 4 – Gerolamo Chiavari is elected to a 2-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa to succeed Gerolamo De Franchi Toso.

title: 1583

text: November 14 – Davide Vacca is elected to a two-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa in Italy in a vote by the Grand Council of the Republic.

title: 1587

text: November 27 – In Italy, Giovanni Giustiniani Campi is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa after a 12-day search for a successor to Battista Negrone.

title: 1591

text: November 27 – Antonio Grimaldi Cebà begins a two-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, succeeding Giovanni Giustiniani Campi.

title: 1593

text: December 7 – Lazzaro Grimaldi Cebà is elected as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, as the previous chief executive, Matteo Senarega completes his two-year term. Senarega is given the post of procuratore perpetuo.

title: 1597

text: February 21 – Lorenzo Sauli becomes the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa, succeeding Lazzaro Grimaldi Cebà. Sauli will serve until 1601.

title: 1599

text: March 28–April 24 – First Savoine War – Relief of Genoa: The Spanish fleet aids the Republic of Genoa, by overcoming the Franco-Savoyard occupation of the city of Genoa.

title: 1625

text: January 7 – The Republic of Genoa forbids the unauthorized printing of newspapers and all handwritten newssheets; the ban is lifted after three months.

title: 1682

text: August 18 – Francesco Maria Imperiale Lercari becomes the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa.

title: 1683

text: May 18 – The French Navy begins a 10-day bombardment of the Italian city of Genoa in the course of the War of the Reunions between France and the Republic of Genoa. During the fight, the French fleet, commanded by Abraham Duquesne, fires almost 13,000 cannonballs, pausing only during a cease-fire on May 21 and May 22, and uses the new technology of explosive bombs. When the bombardment ends on May 28, two-thirds of the city has been destroyed or damaged.

title: 1684

text: September 9 – Francesco Invrea, King of Corsica, begins a two-year term as the Doge of the Republic of Genoa in Italy, succeeding Giovanni Battista Cattaneo Della Volta.

title: 1693

text: September 14 – Vincenzo Durazzo is elected to a 2-year term as the new Doge of the Republic of Genoa (including the island of Corsica), succeeding the outgoing Doge, Domenico Maria De Mari.

title: 1707

text: May 13 – Rebels in Corsica agree to allow the Republic of Genoa to resume its administration of the island in return for amnesty and promised reforms.

title: 1732

text: December 5 – Rallied by a teenage boy, Giovanni Battista Perasso (nicknamed Balilla"), the citizens of the Republic of Genoa rise up against the Austrian occupying troops and the collaborator Military Governor, the Genoese Marquis of Botta d'Adorno. By December 11, the Austrian soldiers are driven from the Italian city-state, but return a few months later.

title: 1746

text: February 16 – On orders from head of state Pasquale Paoli of the newly independent Republic of Corsica, a contingent of about 200 Corsican soldiers begins an invasion of the small island of Capraia off of the coast of northern Italy and territory of the Republic of Genoa. By May 31, the island is conquered as its defenders surrender.

title: 1767

text: May 3 – A fleet of ships from the Republic of Genoa arrives at Capraia and sends 150 men ashore to drive out the Corsicans, but the outnumbered Genoese marines are "quickly cut to pieces".

title: 1767

text: May 15 – After the Treaty of Versailles, the island of Corsica is ceded by Genoa to France.

title: 1768


slug: republic-of-ireland

label: Republic of Ireland

description: country in Northwestern Europe

text: Illan mac Dúnlainge, king of Leinster (Ireland)

title: 527

text: The Skellig Michael monastery is founded on a steep rocky island off the coast of Ireland (approximate date).

title: 588

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Battle of Allen is fought close by the Hill of Allen (Ireland) between the Laigin, led by King Murchad mac Brain Mut, and the forces of Fergal mac Máele Dúin (High King of Ireland).

title: 722

section: Events › By place › Britain

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Viking raiders establish a settlement near Waterford (Ireland) led by Ottir (the Black). The Dublin Vikings are forced to pay tribute to the Irish kings of Meath and Leinster as the price to keeping their independence.

title: 914

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Culture & Society

date: July 20

text: July 20 – Saint Cronan's Boys' National School opens in Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland under the title Bray Male School. Its notable pupils will include President of Ireland Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh.

title: 1820

section: Events › July–September

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: December 29

text: December 29 – The new Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann) comes into force. The Irish Free State becomes "Ireland", and Éamon de Valera becomes the first Taoiseach (prime minister) of the new state. A Presidential Commission (made up the Chief Justice, the Speaker of Dáil Éireann, and the President of the High Court) assumes the powers of the new presidency, pending the popular election of the first President of Ireland in June 1938. The new constitution prohibits divorce.

title: 1937

section: Events › December

date: March 17

text: March 17 (Saint Patrick's Day) – Éamon de Valera, Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland, makes the speech "The Ireland That We Dreamed Of", commonly called the "comely maidens" speech, in Dublin Castle.

title: 1943

section: Events › March

date: June 23

text: June 23 – Seán Lemass becomes the third Taoiseach of Ireland.

title: 1959

section: Events › June

date: January 14

text: January 14 – The First Minister of Northern Ireland and the Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland meet for the first time in 43 years.

title: 1965

section: Events › January–February

date: November 10

text: November 10 – Seán Lemass retires as Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland, to be replaced in the role by fellow Fianna Fáil member Jack Lynch.

title: 1966

section: Events › November

date: May 6

text: May 6 – Arms Crisis in the Republic of Ireland: Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney are dismissed as members of the Irish Government for accusations of their involvement in a plot to import arms for use by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland.

title: 1970

section: Events › May

date: September 27

text: September 27 – Richard Nixon begins a tour of Europe, visiting Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain, the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.

title: 1970

section: Events › September

date: February 28

text: February 28 – The Republic of Ireland general election is held. Liam Cosgrave becomes the new Taoiseach.

title: 1973

section: Events › February

date: January 1

text: January 1 – The United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and Denmark enter the European Economic Community, which later becomes the European Union.

title: 1973

section: Events › January

date: May 17

text: May 17 – The Troubles: The Dublin and Monaghan bombings are carried out by the Ulster Volunteer Force, when they explode four car bombs in counties Dublin and Monaghan in the Republic of Ireland. The attacks kill 33 civilians and wound almost 300, the highest number of casualties in any single event during the conflict.

title: 1974

section: Events › May–June

section: Health & Medicine

date: September 1

text: September 1 – The state of emergency in the Republic of Ireland legally still in force since 1939 is lifted.

title: 1976

date: January 24

text: January 24 – Rose Dugdale and Eddie Gallagher become the first convicted prisoners to marry in prison since the establishment of the Republic of Ireland.

title: 1978

section: Technology & Infrastructure

date: November 2

text: November 2: 8:00 pm – The Republic of Ireland's second television channel RTÉ 2 goes on air (renamed Network 2, 1988; RTÉ Network Two, 1995; N2, 1997; and RTÉ Two in 2004).

title: 1978

date: January 27

text: January 27 – The government of Garret FitzGerald in Ireland is defeated 82–81 on its budget; the 22nd Dáil is dissolved.

title: 1982

date: June 18

text: June 18 – Ireland votes for the Eleventh Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland to accept the Maastricht Treaty with a popular vote of over 69%.

title: 1992

date: June 26

text: June 26 – Bertie Ahern is appointed as the 10th Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland and Mary Harney is appointed as the 16th, and first female, Tánaiste, after their parties, Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats respectively, win the 1997 General Election.

title: 1997

date: December 1

text: December 1 – Ireland formally relinquishes its territorial claim over Northern Ireland and recognizes the United Kingdom's sovereignty there.

title: 1998

date: June 29

text: June 29 – The iPhone, the first modern smartphone, is released in the United States. It is later released in the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, and Austria, in November 2007.

title: 2007

date: October 2

text: October 2 – Ireland holds a second referendum on the EU's Lisbon Treaty. The amendment is approved by the Irish electorate, having been rejected in the Lisbon I referendum held last year.

title: 2009

section: Events › October

date: November 21

text: November 21 – Eurozone countries agree to a rescue package for the Republic of Ireland from the European Financial Stability Facility in response to the country's financial crisis.

title: 2010

date: October 8

text: October 8 – About 200 Extinction Rebellion activists block the gates of Leinster House (parliament) in the Republic of Ireland.

title: 2019

section: Science & Discovery

date: September 30

text: September 30 – The Republic of Ireland promises to plant 440 million trees in twenty years to combat climate change.

title: 2019

date: December 17

text: December 17 – Leo Varadkar succeeds Micheál Martin as Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Ireland, as part of a rotation agreement made in 2020.

title: 2022

date: January 23

text: January 23 – Micheál Martin is re-elected prime minister (Taoiseach) of Ireland by Dáil Éireann for a second non-consecutive term.

title: 2025


slug: republic-of-pisa

label: Republic of Pisa

description: de facto independent state centered on the Tuscan city of Pisa from the late 10th to 15th centuries

section: Conflict & Security

text: Spring – The Republic of Pisa conducts a military offensive against the Saracen strongholds in Southern Italy. The Pisan fleet sacks the city of Reggio Calabria. Pisa becomes one of the four commercial Maritime Republics (the other three are Genoa, Venice and Amalfi), which fight each other for control of the Mediterranean Sea.

title: 1005

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: The Pisan and the Genoese republics launch a naval offensive against the Muslim strongholds of Sardinia, in particular Porto Torres, and defeat the fleet of the taifa king of Dénia, Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī.

title: 1016

text: A Pisan and Genovese fleet attack Bona (modern Annaba) on the Maghribi coast (modern Algeria). The city is occupied for one year.

title: 1034

section: Events › By place › Africa

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Pisa launches a naval assault against Saracen pirate strongholds in the Lipari Islands.

title: 1035

text: The Republic of Pisa successfully completes the conquest of Sardinia, from the Andalusian occupiers. [Dubious claim; since Sardinia was already governed by the Giudici by this time]

title: 1049

text: Summer – The Pisan fleet assaults and sacks Palermo (controlled by the Saracens) – this in support of the Norman forces of Roger I.

title: 1063

text: The Republic of Genoa, jealous of the recent successes of its former allies, launches a naval assault on the Republic of Pisa.

title: 1066

section: Events › Europe

text: Mahdia campaign: The navies of Genoa and Pisa take the capital of the Zirids, and occupy Mahdia for a year. Subsequently, both republics obtain trading privileges.

title: 1087

date: May 26

text: May 26 – King Baldwin I captures Acre, the port is besieged from April, and blockaded by the Genoese and Pisan fleet. Baldwin promises a free passage to those who want to move to Ascalon, but the Italian sailors plunder the wealthy Muslim emigrants and kill many of them.

title: 1104

section: Events › By place › Levant

date: February

text: February–May – Crusaders under Baldwin I besiege Beirut. Genoese and Pisan ships blockade the harbour; Fatimid ships from Tyre and Sidon try in vain to break the blockade. The Fatimid governor flees by night through the Italian fleet to Cyprus. On May 13, Baldwin captures the city by assault and the Italians carry out a massacre among the inhabitants.

title: 1110

date: September 7

text: September 7 – The Republic of Pisa signs a treaty with Ramon Berenguer III ('the Great'), count of Barcelona. The Pisan fleet embarks on a campaign against the Moors in the Balearic Islands.

title: 1113

text: Count Ramon Berenguer III (the Great) of Barcelona, joins the expedition to the Balearic Islands. A Pisan and Catalan fleet (some 450 ships), supported by a large army, conquer Ibiza and Mallorca. They destroy the bases on the islands used by Moorish pirates to prey on Mediterranean shipping.

title: 1114

text: Almoravid troops conquer the Balearic Islands, whose Moorish rulers have been severely weakened by Pisan and Catalan raiders.

title: 1116

section: Religion & Belief

text: Antipope Anacletus II forces Innocent II out of Rome following the departure of Lothair III. Innocent flees and takes a ship to Pisa.

title: 1133

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Pisans in the service of the Holy See (Diocese of Rome) sack the city of Amalfi.

title: 1135

text: The Republic of Genoa raids the Muslim-held Balearic Islands. The Republic of Pisa protests officially – seeing the islands as rightfully theirs. The Genoese then proceed to lay siege to Almería, in vain.

title: 1146

date: July 17

text: July 17 – King Alfonso VII of León and Castile, leads a campaign at the head of mixed armies of Catalonia, Genoa, Pisa and France. He besieges Almería in southern Al-Andalus (modern Spain); a Genoese fleet of 63 galleys and 163 other vessels, blockade the Almoravid-held port, which is captured after a 2-month siege on October 17.

title: 1147

text: The Italian 'naval republics' of Genoa, Pisa and Venice finance their expanding trade within and outside Europe – trade which includes an arms industry for manufactures and merchants alike (approximate date).

title: 1149

text: Approximate date – A commercial treaty between the Almohad Caliphate and the Republic of Pisa opens the North African ports to Tuscan merchants.

title: 1160

text: Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos asks Venice to help pay the costs of defending Sicily, whose Norman rulers have had good relations with Venice. Doge Vitale II Michiel refuses to pay the requested subsidy. Manuel begins to cultivate relationships with the main commercial rivals of Venice: Genoa and Pisa. He grants them their own trade quarters in Constantinople, very near the Venetian settlements.

title: 1166

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Genoa takes Bonifacio (in Corsica) from Pisa. Pope Gregory VIII reconciles the differences between the states so that both may be used to expedite shipments to the Holy Land.

title: 1187

section: Deaths

date: November 20

text: November 20 – Emperor Henry VI enforces the inheritance claims by his wife, Constance I, against her illegitimate nephew, King Tancred of Lecce (who died on February 20). He takes Palermo (supported by the navy of Pisa and Genoa) and gains control of all of Sicily – ending Norman rule in Italy after 90 years.

title: 1194

date: May

text: May – Pope Innocent III travels to Perugia to try to settle the long feud between Genoa and Pisa, that both states might contribute to the transport of the Fifth Crusade. There, after a short illness, Innocent dies on July 16. Two days after his death the aged Cardinal Cencio Savelli (later Honorius III) is elected as the 177th pope of the Catholic Church.

title: 1216

text: Summer – Various groups of French knights reach the Italian ports. King Andrew II of Hungary arrives with his army in Split, in Dalmatia. He is joined by German forces, led by Duke Leopold VI (the Glorious). At the end of July, Pope Honorius III orders the crusaders assembled in Italy and Sicily to proceed to Cyprus, but there is no transport provided by the Italian city-states, Venice, Genoa and Pisa.

title: 1217

section: Events › Fifth Crusade

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: Spring – A fleet consisting of ships from the republics of Venice, Genoa and Pisa arrive at Constantinople. It is headed by Geoffrey II of Villehardouin, ruler of Achaea, who brings 100 of his own knights, 300 cross-bowman, and 500 archers. Geoffrey, formally a vassal of Emperor John I of Constantinople, breaks the blockade of the city, sinks 15 Byzantine ships and enters the Golden Horn. A treaty is signed for two years after the intervention of Angelo Sanudo, duke of Archipelago.

title: 1236

date: August

text: August – Siege of Faenza: Frederick II lays siege to the town of Faenza during the war of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. Meanwhile, Frederick makes an alliance with Pisa to support his campaign against the Papal States.

title: 1240

text: War of Saint Sabas: A dispute between Venice and Genoa arises about concerning land in Acre owned by Mar Saba but claimed by both Venice and Genoa – which leads to a Genoese attack of the monastery in the Venetian quarter. The Venetians are supported by Pisa and the Knights Templar, while the Genoese are joined by the Knights Hospitaller.

title: 1256

date: August 5

text: August 5–6 – Battle of Meloria: A Genoese fleet (some 90 galleys) led by Admiral Oberto Doria defeats the Pisan ships in the Ligurian Sea. This marks the decline of the maritime power of Pisa in the Mediterranean.

title: 1284

date: June 11

text: June 11 – Battle of Campaldino: Pro-papal Guelph forces of Florence and their allies, Lucca, Pistoia, Prato and Siena under Viscount Aimery IV defeat the Ghibelline army (some 10,000 men) in Tuscany. Florence becomes the dominant power in Central Italy; powerful merchant guilds take on a more political role in the communal government against their rivals of Genoa, Pisa and Venice.

title: 1289

text: Boniface VIII attempts to end the rivalry between Genoa and Pisa over the Tyrrhenian islands of Sardinia and Corsica, naming King James II of Aragon ("the Just") as regent of the islands.

title: 1297

date: July 31

text: July 31 – Pisa and Genoa agree to a thirty-year truce. Part of the treaty includes the end of the Pisan military support to Genoa's enemies in Corsica.

title: 1299

section: Culture & Society

date: February 12

text: February 12 – Italian sculptor Tino di Camaino is commissioned by the Republic of Pisa to create a statue of the late Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor (Enrico VII di Lussemburgo, King of Italy), to be finished in less than six months for the August 24 dedication of Henry's tomb. Camaino delivers the work by July 26.

title: 1315

section: Events › January – March

date: April 11

text: April 11 – Hugh II, the self-styled King of Arborea

title: 1323

section: Events › April – June

date: June 28

text: June 28 – Siege of Villa di Chiesa: Aragonese forces under Prince Alfonso IV the Kind begin the siege at Villa di Chiesa. The fortified town is founded by Count Ugolino della Gherardesca, but is now under the control of the Republic of Pisa. Alfonso attacks the town with some 1,000 men and several siege engines, while the citizens are starved to death.

title: 1323

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Battle of Cascina: Forces of the Republic of Florence, led by Galeotto Malatesta, defeat those of Pisa.

title: 1364

section: Events › January–December

text: Pisa is subjugated by Florence.

title: 1406

section: Events › Date unknown


slug: republic-of-ragusa

label: Republic of Ragusa

description: former maritime republic in southeast Europe (1358–1808)

text: Peter Krešimir IV is crowned king of Croatia and Dalmatia. His coronation is recognised by the Byzantine Empire who confirm him as the supreme ruler of the Dalmatian cities, i.e. over the Theme of Dalmatia – excluding the theme of Ragusa and the Duchy of Durazzo.

title: 1059

text: May – A Norman fleet of 150 ships (including 60 horse transports), led by Duke Robert Guiscard, sets off towards the Dalmatian coast. An army of 15,000 men (including about 1,300 Norman knights) sails to the city of Avalona (modern Albania); they are joined by several ships from Ragusa, a republic in the Balkans who are enemies of the Byzantines.

title: 1081

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Robert Guiscard returns with 150 warships in Illyria (modern Albania), and occupies Corfu and Kefalonia with the support of Ragusa and the Dalmatian city-states.

title: 1084

date: March 25

text: March 25 – At Dagnum (a former city in modern-day Albania), a peace treaty is signed between Venetian merchants of Ragusa and King Stefan Dečanski of Serbia.

title: 1326

date: June 27

text: June 27 – The Republic of Ragusa is founded, after being freed from the Republic of Venice.

title: 1358

date: January 27

text: January 27 – The Republic of Ragusa is the first state in Europe to outlaw slavery.

title: 1416

section: Events › January–March

section: Health & Medicine

date: April 2

text: April 2 – A bubonic plague epidemic strikes the independent city of Ragusa (modern-day Dubrovnik in Croatia), capital of the Republic of Ragusa, and a group of 10 patricians reject the chance to flee, staying to govern the city. Within 15 days, nine of the ten are dead, and only Marin Simunov Rastic survives. The progress of the plague, which lasts for more than two months, is chronicled by an Italian-born resident, Opis Diversis.

title: 1437

section: Events › April–June

date: September 17

text: September 17 – Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia, and his sons Grgur, Stefan and Lazar sign a charter confirming the sovereignty and privileges of the Republic of Ragusa, located in what is now Croatia.

title: 1445

section: Events › July–September

section: Climate & Environment

date: May 6

text: May 6 – A Category IX earthquake strikes Ragusa in the Republic of Ragusa.

title: 1516

section: Conflict & Security

date: August 29

text: August 29 – Battle of Mohács: The Ottoman army of Sultan Suleiman I defeats the Hungarian army of King Louis II, who drowns while retreating with his troops. Two rival groups seek to elect a successor to Louis. Suleiman takes Buda, while Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and John Zápolya, Prince of Transylvania, dispute the succession. As a result of the battle, Ragusa achieves independence, although it acknowledges Ottoman overlordship.

title: 1526

date: April 6

text: April 6 – The 1667 Dubrovnik earthquake in the Republic of Ragusa (part of modern-day Croatia) kills as many as 5,000 people, roughly one sixth of the population, and levels most of the buildings in Dubrovnik.

title: 1667


slug: republic-of-siena

label: Republic of Siena

description: former republic on the Italian peninsula between 1125 and 1555

section: Religion & Belief

text: The Sienese bankers belonging to the firm known as the Gran Tavola, under the steering of the Bonsignori Brothers, become the main financiers of the Papacy.

title: 1250

section: Events › By topic › Markets

text: The Guelph Republic of Siena allows exiled Ghibelline rebels back into the city.

title: 1286

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Economy & Finance

text: The Italian city of Siena exacts a forced loan from its taxpayers for the first time, a common feature of medieval public finance.

title: 1287

section: Events › By topic › Economy

date: June 9

text: June 9 – The painting Maestà the master work of the Italian artist Duccio di Buoninsegna, is unveiled at the Siena Cathedral in the Republic of Siena.

title: 1311

date: September 22

text: September 22 – The Republic of Siena and the Duchy of Milan enter into a 10-year alliance.

title: 1389

date: June 1

text: June 1 – In the battle of San Romano, fought in Italy only 30 mi from the capital at Florence, the Republic of Florence cavalry and infantry, led by General Niccolò da Tolentino defeat the army of the Republic of Siena, led by Francesco Piccinino. The Renaissance painter Paolo Uccello later commemorates the event in a triptych painting.

title: 1432

date: November 25

text: November 25 – Italian War of 1551–1559: Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of the Florentine Republic, signs a secret treaty with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to conquer the Republic of Siena to bring it back into the Empire.

title: 1553

section: Events › October–December

text: June 11 – Italian General Piero Strozzi successfully defends an attack on the Republic of Siena by French troops, led by Cosimo de' Medici at the battle of Pontedera, but suffers a tremendous loss of his own troops in the process.

title: 1554

date: April 17

text: April 17 – After 18 months of siege, the Republic of Siena surrenders to the Florentine–Imperial army.

title: 1555

date: July 3

text: July 3 – The small Stato dei Presidi, a 300 km2 section of Spanish territory on the Tuscan coast of Italy, is created by a treaty between Cosimo I de' Medici (Duke of the Florentine Republic and the future Grand Duke of Tuscany) and King Felipe II of Spain. In return, Cosimo receives the rest of the former Republic of Siena.

title: 1557


slug: republic-of-texas

label: Republic of Texas

description: sovereign nation (not recognized by Mexico) in North America that existed from March 2, 1836, to February 19, 1846

date: April 22

text: April 22 – Texas Revolution: Forces under Texas General Sam Houston capture Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna.

title: 1836

date: August 30

text: August 30 – The settlement of Houston, Texas is founded.

title: 1836

date: March 2

text: March 2 – Texas Revolution – Convention of 1836: The Texas Declaration of Independence is signed by 60 delegates, and the Republic of Texas is declared.

title: 1836

date: May 14

text: May 14 – Texas Revolution: The Treaties of Velasco are signed, between Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna and the Republic of Texas. In exchange for his freedom and the guarantee of free passage back to Mexico, General Santa Anna gives his recognition to the independence of Texas. The Mexican government refuses to ratify the treaties.

title: 1836

date: June 5

text: June 5 – The city of Houston is incorporated by the Republic of Texas.

title: 1837

date: September 26

text: September 26 – The destructive "Racer's hurricane" sweeps across the Caribbean, northeastern Mexico, the Republic of Texas and the Gulf Coast of the United States and lasts until October 9, after killing at least 105 people.

title: 1837

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: November

text: November – The settlement of Dallas, Texas, is founded by John Neely Bryan.

title: 1841

date: March 5

text: March 5 – Mexican troops led by Ráfael Vásquez invade the Republic of Texas, briefly occupy San Antonio, and then head back to the Rio Grande. This is the first such invasion since the Texas Revolution.

title: 1842

date: December 27

text: December 27 – American newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan claims (in connection with the annexation of the Oregon Country) in The United States Magazine and Democratic Review that the United States should be allowed "the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions". It is the second time he uses the term manifest destiny (first in connection with the Republic of Texas in July – August), and it will have a huge influence on American imperialism in the following century.

title: 1845

section: Culture & Society

date: February 1

text: February 1 – Anson Jones, President of the Republic of Texas, signs the charter officially creating Baylor University (the oldest university in the U.S. state of Texas that still operates under its original name).

title: 1845

date: March 1

text: March 1 – President John Tyler signs a bill authorizing the United States to annex the Republic of Texas, subject to approval by the voters in the Republic. The territory claimed includes all of the future U.S. state of Texas, as well as portions of New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado and Wyoming.

title: 1845

date: October 13

text: October 13 – A majority of voters in the Republic of Texas approve a proposed constitution that, if accepted by the United States Congress, will make Texas a U.S. state.

title: 1845

date: February 19

text: February 19 – Texas annexation: United States president James K. Polk's annexation of the Republic of Texas is finalized by Texas president Anson Jones in a formal ceremony of transfer of sovereignty. The newly formed Texas state government is officially installed in Austin.

title: 1846

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: January 9

text: January 9 – Anson Jones, the last president of the Republic of Texas, commits suicide.

title: 1858

section: Deaths

date: December 5

text: December 5 – David G. Burnet, early politician within the Republic of Texas (b. 1788)

title: 1870

section: Deaths › July–December