slug: parliament-of-the-united-kingdom

label: Parliament of the United Kingdom

description: supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: The British Parliament extends James Watt's patent for the steam engine to the year 1800.

title: 1782

date: January 25

text: January 25 – The British Parliament passes the Constitutional Act 1791, splitting the old province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada.

title: 1791

date: May 5

text: May 5 – The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, designed by George Stephenson and Joseph Locke, destined to open as the world's first purpose-built passenger railway operated by steam locomotives in 1830, receives authorisation by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

title: 1826

date: April 13

text: April 13 – The Catholic Relief Act is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, granting a substantial measure of Catholic emancipation in Britain and Ireland.

title: 1829

date: August 29

text: August 29 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom votes to pass the Factory Acts, limiting child labour.

title: 1833

date: August 9

text: August 9 – The Aberdeen Act is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, empowering the British Royal Navy to search Brazilian ships, as part of the abolition of the slave trade from Africa.

title: 1845

date: August 28

text: August 28 – The New Zealand Constitution Act 1846 is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom with the intention of granting self-government to the British colony. Governor George Grey suspends implementation of the majority of the Act, with the exception of the creation of New Ulster and New Munster Provinces, and it is superseded by the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852.

title: 1846

date: April 10

text: April 10 – A Chartist 'Monster Rally' is held in Kennington Park London, headed by Feargus O'Connor. A petition demanding the franchise is presented to the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

title: 1848

date: June 30

text: June 30 – The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to grant the British colony self-government with a representative constitution.

title: 1852

date: November 11

text: November 11 – The new Palace of Westminster opens in London as the home of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

title: 1852

text: August 28 – The Matrimonial Causes Act makes divorce without parliamentary approval legal in the United Kingdom.

title: 1857

date: August 2

text: August 2 – The Government of India Act, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, transfers the territories of the British East India Company and their administration to the direct rule of the British Crown, through a Secretary of State for India.

title: 1858

date: May 29

text: May 29 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the Capital Punishment Amendment Act, thus ending public hanging.

title: 1868

section: Events › May

date: April 4

text: April 4 – William Ewart Gladstone introduces the First Irish Home Rule Bill in the Parliament of the United Kingdom; it is defeated on June 8.

title: 1886

section: Events › April

date: November 18

text: November 18 – Black Friday: 300 suffragettes clash with police outside the Parliament of the United Kingdom over the failure of the Conciliation Bill.

title: 1910

section: Events › November

date: January 21

text: January 21 – Dáil Éireann meets for the first time in the Mansion House, Dublin. It comprises Sinn Féin members elected in the 1918 general election who, in accordance with their manifesto, have not taken their seats in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, but chosen to declare an independent Irish Republic. In the first shots of the Anglo-Irish War, two Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) men are killed in an ambush at Soloheadbeg, County Tipperary.

title: 1919

section: Events › January

text: August 13 – Irish War of Independence: The Restoration of Order in Ireland Act (passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom) receives Royal Assent, providing for Irish Republican Army activists to be tried by court-martial, rather than by jury in criminal courts.

title: 1920

section: Events › August

date: December 23

text: December 23 – The Government of Ireland Act 1920, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, receives Royal Assent from George V, providing for the partition of Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, with separate parliaments, granting a measure of home rule.

title: 1920

section: Events › December

date: December 11

text: December 11 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom enacts the Statute of Westminster, which establishes a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominions of the Commonwealth of Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, the Dominion of New Zealand and the Union of South Africa.

title: 1931

date: October 2

text: October 2 – Disgusted with Neville Chamberlain's conduct at Munich, Duff Cooper resigns his post as First Lord of the Admiralty. With his resignation, formal debate begins in the Parliament of the United Kingdom on the Munich Agreement, but with Chamberlain at the peak of his popularity, there can be little doubt His Majesty's Government will receive a vote of confidence.

title: 1938

section: Events › October

date: May 22

text: May 22 – WWII: The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1940, giving the government full control over all persons and property.

title: 1940

date: November 25

text: November 25 – The New Zealand Parliament ratifies the Statute of Westminster, and thus becomes independent of legislative control by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

title: 1947

date: April 21

text: April 21 – The opening of the Parliament of the United Kingdom is televised for the first time.

title: 1966

date: November 5

text: November 5 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the Railways Act 1993, setting out the procedures for privatisation of British Rail.

title: 1993


slug: parliament

label: Parliament

description: legislative body of government

section: Religion & Belief

date: April 3

text: April 3 – Henry IV grants the County of Friuli (with ducal status) to Sigaerd of Beilstein, patriarch of Aquileia. He creates the first Parliament, representing the communes as well the nobility and clergy.

title: 1077

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: In London, a city ordinance decrees that heating with coal is forbidden when Parliament is in session (the ordinance is not particularly effective).

title: 1306

section: Events › By topic › Economy

date: January 13

text: January 13 – King Henry VI of England summons the English Parliament for the first time in almost three years, directing the Lords and the members of the House of Commons to assemble at Westminster on February 25.

title: 1445

section: Events › January–March

section: Crime & Justice

date: January 24

text: January 24 – Gunpowder Plot: The trial of Guy Fawkes and other conspirators, for plotting against Parliament and James I of England, begins in London. They are hanged, drawn and quartered on January 30–31.

title: 1606

section: Science & Discovery

text: October 2 – Dutch lens maker Hans Lippershey demonstrates the first telescope in the Dutch Parliament.

title: 1608

section: Events › October–December

date: June 18

text: June 18 – The English Parliament refuses to vote Charles I the right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, restricting him to one year instead.

title: 1625

section: Events › April–June

date: June 15

text: June 15 – King Charles I of England dissolves the English Parliament.

title: 1626

date: March 17

text: March 17 – Oliver Cromwell makes his first appearance in the English Parliament, as Member for Huntingdon.

title: 1628

section: Conflict & Security

date: August 8

text: August 8 – Battle of Dungan's Hill: Irish forces are defeated by English Parliamentary forces.

title: 1647

section: Events › July–September

date: October 26

text: October 26 – American Revolution: George III announces to Parliament that the American colonies are in an uprising and must be dealt with accordingly.

title: 1775

section: Events › July–December


slug: parma

label: Parma

description: city in the northern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna

year_label: 183 BCE

text: Roman colonies are established at Mutina (later Modena), Pisa and Parma in northern and central Italy.

title: 183 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 43 BCE

text: Antony marches to Parma (which is sacked) and Placentia. He then crosses the Ligurian Alps to Vada Sabatia, 50 km 0 south-west of Genoa, and joins with Aemilius Lepidus, soon after Decimus Brutus is killed by brigands. The Senate declares Antony a hostis, an enemy of the state. Sextus Pompey becomes supreme commander of the Roman navy and Gaius Cassius proconsul of Syria.

title: 43 BC

section: Deaths

date: March 5

text: March 5 – Adelard becomes the new Duke of Spoleto upon the death of his father, Suppo I, who ruled much of Italy including Brescia, Parma, Piacenza, Modena, and Bergamo. Adelard reigns for only five months before dying in August.

title: 824

section: Events › By date

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Oath of Pontida: Supported by Pope Alexander III, the Lombard League is founded, a military alliance between the municipalities of Milan, Lodi, Ferrara, Piacenza and Parma, against the German invading forces of Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) in Northern Italy. The League (with other Italian cities) openly challenges Frederick's claim to power (Honor Imperii).

title: 1167

date: February 18

text: February 18 – Battle of Parma: Imperial forces (some 6,000 men) under Emperor Frederick II are defeated by the Lombard League at Parma. Much of Frederick's treasure is lost, while he is hunting in the Taro Valley.

title: 1248

date: September 12

text: September 12 – In the Italian War, the Holy Roman Empire abandons its siege of the French-controlled city of Parma after 17 days.

title: 1521

section: Culture & Society

text: The 3,000 seat Teatro Farnese, the first permanent proscenium theatre, is built into the Great Hall of the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, Italy.

title: 1618

section: Events › Date unknown

date: February

text: February–March – Revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States are put down by Austrian troops.

title: 1831


slug: parthia

label: Parthia

description: historical region located in north-eastern Iran

year_label: 323 BCE

text: Phrataphernes rules Parthia and Hyrcania;

title: 323 BC

section: Events › By place › Macedonian Empire

year_label: 250 BCE

text: Andragoras, a Seleucid satrap of the province of Partahia (Parthia), tries to gain independence from the Seleucid Kingdom under Antiochus II.

title: 250 BC

section: Events › By place › Persia

year_label: 239 BCE

text: Diodotus of Bactria defeats an army of Parthians. He dies shortly thereafter and is succeeded by his son Diodotus II.

title: 239 BC

year_label: 238 BCE

text: Andragoras, Seleucid governor (satrap) of Parthia

title: 238 BC

year_label: 232 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The Seleucid king Seleucus II Callinicus undertakes an expedition into the interior of Iran to try to regain Parthia, but his efforts come to nothing. According to some sources, he is even taken prisoner for several years by the Parthian king, Arsaces I. Other sources mention that he establishes a peace with Arsaces I by recognising his sovereignty over Parthia.

title: 232 BC

section: Events › By place › Seleucid Empire

year_label: 211 BCE

text: Arsaces II succeeds his father Arsaces I as King of Parthia.

title: 211 BC

section: Events › By place › Parthia

text: Arsaces I, king of Parthia from 250 BC and son of Phriapites, a chief of the seminomadic Parni tribe from the Caspian steppes

title: 211 BC

year_label: 209 BCE

text: The King of the Parthians, Arsaces II, is attacked by the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who takes Hecatompylos (southeast of the Caspian Sea), the Arsacid capital and Syrinx in Hyrcania. Antiochus III defeats Arsaces II at the Battle of Mount Labus and then forces Arsaces II to enter into an alliance with the Seleucids.

title: 209 BC

year_label: 206 BCE

text: Arsaces II, king of the Parthians, loses territory in battles with Euthydemus I, ruler of Bactria.

title: 206 BC

year_label: 205 BCE

text: Antiochus III returns from his eastern campaigns, after having defeated the Bactrians and subjugated the Parthians and thus being able to partly restore Seleucid power in these provinces by crushing the revolting governors of Media, Persia and Anatolia. Having established a system of vassal states in the East, Antiochus now adopts the ancient Achaemenid title of "great king", and the Greeks, comparing him to Alexander the Great, surname him "the Great", that is to say Antiochus III Megas.

title: 205 BC

year_label: 195 BCE

section: Births

text: Mithridates I (or Mithradates), "Great King" of Parthia from about 171 BC who turned Parthia into a major political power and expanded the empire westward into Mesopotamia (d. 138 BC)

title: 195 BC

year_label: 191 BCE

text: Arsaces II, king of Parthia is succeeded by his cousin Phriapatius.

title: 191 BC

text: Arsaces II, King of Parthia, who had reigned from about 211 BC

title: 191 BC

year_label: 176 BCE

text: King Phriapatius of Parthia dies and is succeeded by his son Phraates I.

title: 176 BC

year_label: 175 BCE

section: Religion & Belief

text: Timarchus is appointed governor of Media in western Persia by Antiochus IV to deal with the growing threat from the Parthians. At the same time, Timarchus' brother, Heracleides, becomes minister of the royal finances.

title: 175 BC

year_label: 171 BCE

text: Mithradates I succeeds his brother Phraates I as king of Parthia.

title: 171 BC

text: Phraates I, King of Parthia, who has ruled the country since 176 BC

title: 171 BC

year_label: 167 BCE

text: The Parthians capture the key central Asian city of Herat. This victory effectively chokes off the movement of trade along the Silk Road to China and means that the Hellenic kingdom of Bactria is doomed.

title: 167 BC

year_label: 166 BCE

text: The Seleucid king Antiochus IV mounts a campaign against the Parthians who are threatening his empire in the east. He leaves his chancellor, Lysias, with responsibility for the government of southern Syria and the guardianship of his son.

title: 166 BC

year_label: 161 BCE

text: The rebel Seleucid general and ruler of Media, Timarchus, who has distinguished himself by defending Media against the emergent Parthians, treats Demetrius I's violent accession to the Seleucid throne as the excuse to declare himself an independent king and extend his realm from Media into Babylonia.

title: 161 BC

section: Events › by side › Seleucid Empire

year_label: 160 BCE

text: The Parthian King, Mithradates I, seizes Media from the Seleucids following the death of Timarchus.

title: 160 BC

year_label: 159 BCE

text: While Eucratides I is in north west India to claim possession of the previous Bactrian King Demetrius I's territory there, the Parthians, under Mithradates I, annex two Bactrian provinces. Returning from India to reconquer them, Eucratides is murdered by his son.

title: 159 BC

section: Events › Greece › Bactria

year_label: 157 BCE

text: Sanatruces (also known as Sinatruces or Sanatruk), King of Parthia who will rule the Parthian Empire from around 77 BC (approximate date) (d. c. 70 BC)

title: 157 BC

year_label: 141 BCE

text: Demetrius II of Syria made prisoner of Mithridates, king of the Parthians. Antiochus VII Sidetes becomes king of the Seleucid Empire in his absence.

title: 141 BC

section: Events › By place › Syria and Judea

year_label: 138 BCE

text: Phraates II becomes emperor of Parthia.

title: 138 BC

text: Mithridates I, king of Parthia (b. c. 195 BC)

title: 138 BC

year_label: 129 BCE

text: Battle of Ecbatana: the Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes is defeated and killed by the Parthians under Phraates II, ending Seleucid control over Media or Mesopotamia.

title: 129 BC

section: Events › By place › Syria

year_label: 128 BCE

text: Artabanus I becomes king of Parthia (approximate date)

title: 128 BC

text: Phraates II, king of Parthia (approximate date)

title: 128 BC

year_label: 124 BCE

text: Mithridates II succeeds Artabanus I as King of Parthia.

title: 124 BC

year_label: 115 BCE

text: Parthia makes a trade treaty with China.

title: 115 BC

section: Events › By place › Middle East

year_label: 100 BCE

text: Tigranes II of Armenia is placed on the Armenian throne by the Parthians in exchange for the cession of "seventy valley" (approximate date).

title: 100 BC

section: Events › By place › Asia Minor

year_label: 92 BCE

text: In the first diplomatic contact between Rome and Parthia, Sulla meets with a Parthian envoy, resulting in the parties recognizing the Euphrates as a common frontier.

title: 92 BC

text: Phraates III becomes the king of Parthia.

title: 70 BC

text: Sanatruces (or Sanatruk), king of Parthia

title: 70 BC

text: Mithridates IV, claimant to the throne of Parthia, supported by Aulus Gabinius, Roman governor of Syria, is defeated by Surena, general under Orodes, in the Battle of Seleucia.

title: 55 BC

text: Mithridates III, king of Parthia (executed by Orodes II)

title: 54 BC

text: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian pacifies Dalmatia and Pannonia forming the province of Illyricum, while Antony regains Armenia from Parthia. Octavian reduces the outposts defending the Liburnian town of Promona, sets up siege works and forces its surrender.

title: 34 BC

text: Tiridates II invades Parthia and issues coins dated from March and May, 26 BC.

title: 26 BC

text: May 12 – Emperor Augustus Caesar negotiates a peace with Parthia, making Armenia a buffer zone between the two major powers. The captured eagles of Marcus Licinius Crassus and Mark Antony are returned.

title: 20 BC

text: AD 1 – Gaius Caesar meets with Phraates V, the king of Parthia, on the Euphrates. Rather than invading the Parthians, Gaius Caesar concludes peace with them; Parthia recognizes Roman claims to Armenia.

title: 0s

text: AD 7 – Vonones I becomes ruler of the Parthian Empire (approximate date).

title: 0s

text: AD 8 – Vonones I becomes king (shah) of the Parthian Empire.

title: 0s

text: Artabanus II becomes ruler of Parthia.

title: 10s

text: Emperor Tiberius sends Germanicus to the east, in order to lead a military campaign against Parthia.

title: 10s

text: Vonones I, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 10s

text: Tiridates III becomes king of Parthia (until AD 36).

title: 30s

text: Lucius Vitellius defeats Artabanus III of Parthia in support of another claimant to the throne, Tiridates III.

title: 30s

text: Vardanes I becomes king of Parthia, opposed by his brother Gotarzes II.

title: 40s

text: Corbulo recruits Syrian auxiliary units in the region and stations them in border forts, with orders from Nero not to provoke the Parthians.

title: 50s

text: War between Rome and Parthia breaks out due to the invasion of Armenia by King Vologases I, who has replaced the Roman-supported ruler with his brother Tiridates I of Armenia. (approximate date)

title: 50s

text: Roman-Parthian War: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, commander in the East, launches his Armenian offensive against Parthia. He leads a Roman army (four legions) through the mountainous country of Armenia, against the fortress at Volandum, to the southwest of Artaxata. After a siege of eight hours Corbulo takes the city; the legionnaires massacre the defenders and plunder Volandum to their hearts' content.

title: 50s

text: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo is restored to command after the Roman debacle at the Battle of Rhandeia. He invades Armenia and defeats Tiridates I, who accepts Roman sovereignty. Parthia withdraws from the war.

title: AD 63

text: Vologases I, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 78

text: Vologases II, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 80

text: Emperor Trajan sails from Rome to begin his expedition against Parthia. He arrives in Athens where Parthian envoys greet him with olive branches, a sign of peace.

title: AD 113

text: Emperor Trajan defeats the Parthians and overruns Armenia and northern Mesopotamia.

title: AD 114

text: Trajan captures the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon.

title: AD 115

text: Emperor Hadrian averts a war with Parthia by a personal meeting with Osroes I (according to the Historia Augusta, disputed).

title: AD 123

text: Mithridates V, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 140

text: Lucius Verus begins a war with the Parthians, due to the invasion of Syria and Armenia by King Vologases IV of Parthia.

title: AD 162

text: Avidius Cassius, one of Lucius Verus' generals, crosses the Euphrates and invades Parthia.

title: AD 164

text: A Roman military expedition under Avidius Cassius is successful against Parthia, capturing Artaxata, Seleucia on the Tigris, and Ctesiphon. The Parthians sue for peace.

title: AD 165

text: Antonine Plague: A pandemic breaks out in Rome, after the Roman army returns from Parthia. The plague significantly depopulates the Roman Empire and China.

title: AD 165

text: End of the war with Parthia: The Parthians leave Armenia and eastern Mesopotamia, which both become Roman protectorates.

title: AD 166

text: Legio I, II, and III Parthica are levied by Septimius Severus for his Parthian campaign.

title: AD 197

text: King Vologases VI succeeds his father Vologases V to the throne. His brother Artabanus V begins a rebellion against him in the Parthian Empire.

title: 208

text: Emperor Caracalla tricks the Parthians by accepting a marriage proposal. He slaughters his bride and the wedding guests after the celebrations.

title: 216

text: King Artabanus V signs a peace treaty with Rome after he receives 200 million sesterces, for the rebuilding of towns destroyed during the war in Parthia.

title: 217

text: King Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, gains support from some Parthian sub-kings and revolts against the rule of Vologases VI. Ardashir, a grandson of Sasan, had ruled Persis since 208 and six years earlier gained control of the region surrounding Persepolis.

title: 220

text: King Ardashir I, four years after establishing the Sassanid Persian Empire, completes his conquest of Parthia.

title: 228

text: King Shapur II, ruler of the Persian Empire, age 70, dies after a 69-year reign in which he conquered Armenia and transferred multitudes of people from the western lands to Susiana (Khuzistan). The great town Nishapur in Khorasan (eastern Parthia) is also founded by him. His brother Ardashir II, governor-king of Adiabene, is placed by the nobles on the throne.

title: 379


slug: parthian-empire

label: Parthian Empire

description: second ancient Iranian Empire (247 BC–224 AD)

year_label: 165 BCE

section: Deaths

text: Phraates I, king of Parthia (Arsacid dynasty)

title: 165 BC

text: The Han diplomat Zhang Qian escapes Xiongnu custody and resumes his mission of forming an anti-Xiongnu alliance with the Yuezhi. He reaches the State of Dayuan in the Ferghana Valley, whose trade with the Han had been prevented by the Xiongnu and who supply Zhang with guides. Zhang then travels to the states of Kangju, Greater Yuezhi and Daxia (Bactria). He also learns of the Parthian Empire, Daqin, the Caspian Sea and the source of the Yellow River.

title: 129 BC

section: Events › By place › China

year_label: 127 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Scythians defeat the Parthians in a battle around Media.

title: 127 BC

year_label: 126 BCE

text: Phraates II, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 126 BC

year_label: 87 BCE

text: Gotarzes I, ruler (shah) of the Parthian Empire

title: 87 BC

year_label: 69 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Parthians and Romans re-establish Euphrates as a frontier.

title: 69 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 54 BCE

text: Crassus arrives in Syria as proconsul and invades the Parthian Empire, initiating the Roman–Persian Wars, which were to last nearly seven centuries.

title: 54 BC

year_label: 53 BCE

text: The Parthian Empire achieved a decisive victory against Rome at the Battle of Carrhae, where General Surena defeated and killed Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus. According to some historical interpretations, the Mahestan (Parthian noble council) supported preparations for the defense of the empire and advised the king during the military mobilization.

title: 53 BC

section: Events › By place › Parthian Empire

year_label: 40 BCE

text: Parthians conquer Jerusalem. Hyrcanus II is removed from power, while Antigonus the Hasmonean becomes king of Judea under Parthian rule. Herod the Great flees Jerusalem to Rome. There he is titled king of Judea by Mark Antony.

title: 40 BC

section: Events › Asia minor › Parthia

year_label: 39 BCE

text: Marcus Antonius dispatches Publius Ventidius Bassus with 11 legions to the East and drives Quintus Labienus out of Asia Minor. Labienus retreats into Syria, where he receives Parthian reinforcements. Ventidius finally defeats him in the battle at the Taurus Mountains.

title: 39 BC

year_label: 38 BCE

text: Pacorus I, crown prince of Parthia (b. c. 63 BC)

title: 38 BC

year_label: 37 BCE

text: Romans conquer Jerusalem from the Parthians. Herod the Great becomes king of Judea and Ananelus is installed as High Priest; both positions are seized from Antigonus II Mattathias after a five-month siege. Thousands of Jews are slaughtered by Roman troops supporting Herod.

title: 37 BC

text: Orodes II, king of the Parthian Empire (b. 95 BC)

title: 37 BC

year_label: 36 BCE

date: June

text: June – Mark Antony launches a major offensive against the Parthians, in which he marches with 10 legions and 10,000 cavalry to Carana in Anatolia.

title: 36 BC

year_label: 35 BCE

text: Phraates IV ascended the Parthian throne after eliminating his father Orodes II and several royal rivals. The Mahestan (the noble council of the Parthian Empire) initially opposed his rise due to concerns about his violent methods. However, Phraates IV consolidated power by executing or exiling many council members, significantly weakening the influence of the Mahestan.

title: 35 BC

year_label: 22 BCE

text: King Artaxias II returns, with the support of the Parthians, to Armenia and claims the throne. Artavasdes I escapes to Rome, where Caesar Augustus receives him.

title: 22 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

year_label: 2 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

text: Phraates V and his mother Musa become rulers of the Parthian Empire following the murder of Phraates IV.

title: 0s BC

section: Events › 2 BC › Parthia

text: Phraates IV, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 0s BC

section: Deaths › 2 BC

year_label: 6 CE

text: AD 6 – Orodes III, king (shah) of the Parthian Empire

title: 0s

year_label: 45 CE

text: Vardanes I, king of the Parthian Empire (approximate date)

title: 40s

section: Deaths › AD 45

year_label: 47 CE

text: Vardanes I, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 40s

section: Deaths › AD 47

year_label: 51 CE

text: Gotarzes II, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 50s

section: Deaths › 51 AD

year_label: 60 CE

text: Abdagases I, king of the Parthian Empire (approximate date)

title: AD 60

year_label: 78 CE

text: Pacorus II becomes king of the Parthian Empire (r. 78–115).

title: AD 78

section: Events › By place › Asia

year_label: 81 CE

text: Artabanus III, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 81

text: Pacorus II, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 105

text: Osroes I of Parthia succeeds his brother Pacorus II, and rules over the western Parthian Empire.

title: AD 109

text: Pacorus II, ruler (King of Kings ) of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 110

text: Emperor Trajan completes his invasion of Parthia by capturing the cities of Seleucia, Babylon, Ctesiphon and Susa, marking the high-water mark of the Roman Empire's eastern expansion.

title: AD 116

text: Hadrian returns large parts of Mesopotamia to the Parthians as part of a peace settlement. He inaugurates a policy of retrenchment and cultural integration, giving up the policy of conquest of his predecessor in order to consolidate the empire.

title: AD 117

text: King Osroes I of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 129

text: King Mithridates V dies; Vologases IV claims the throne and extends his rule throughout the Parthian Empire.

title: AD 140

text: King Vologases IV, son of Mithridates V of Parthia, unites the Parthian Empire under his rule.

title: AD 147

text: Vologases III, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 147

text: Autumn – The Parthians invade Armenia, and install their own candidate on the throne. A legion (perhaps Legio IX Hispana) is destroyed at Elegeia.

title: AD 161

text: Osroes II, controlling Media, claims the throne of the Parthian Empire. King Vologases IV of Parthia puts down the rebellion and restores order.

title: AD 190

text: Vologases IV, king of the Parthian Empire

title: AD 191

text: Vologases V, king of the Parthian Empire

title: 208

text: Diadumenianus, son of Macrinus, escapes to the Parthian court, but is captured at Zeugma and also put to death.

title: 218

text: April 28 – Battle of Hormozdgan: King Ardashir I defeats Artabanus V, destroying the Parthian Empire, and establishing the Sassanid Dynasty. Artabanus V's brother Vologases VI will continue to rule, with Armenian and Kushan support, over outlying parts of Parthia.

title: 224

text: April 28 – Artabanus IV, king of Parthia

title: 224

text: Ctesiphon, until now capital of the Parthian Empire, falls into the hands of the Sasanian Empire, who also make it their capital, after putting an end to the Parthian Dynasty in Iran.

title: 226


slug: patriarch-of-alexandria

label: Patriarch of Alexandria

description: Archbishop of Alexandria, Egypt; includes the designation "pope"

section: Religion & Belief

text: Demetrius of Alexandria becomes Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: AD 189

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Peter of Alexandria becomes Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 300

text: Arius travels to Nicomedia at the invitation of Bishop Eusebius, after having been accused of heresy and condemned by Alexander, the Patriarch of Alexandria. This gives rise to the Arian Controversy.

title: 319

text: First Synod of Tyre: Constantine I convenes a gathering of bishops at Tyre to depose and exile Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria.

title: 335

date: June 17

text: June 17 – Constantius II announces the restoration of Athanasius, as Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 337

text: Constantius II assembles a conciliabulum at Arles, and condemns Athanasius as Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 353

text: Pope Liberius refuses to sign a condemnation of Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria, imposed at Milan by Constantius II. Liberius is exiled to Beroea (Greece) and replaced by Felix II. He becomes an antipope and bishop of Rome.

title: 355

text: Timothy succeeds Peter II as Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 381

date: February 27

text: February 27 – Peter II, Patriarch of Alexandria

title: 381

text: Theophilus becomes Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 385

text: Cyril of Alexandria becomes Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 412

date: October 15

text: October 15 – Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria

title: 412

text: Dioscorus I becomes Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 444

text: Cyril of Alexandria, patriarch and theologian

title: 444

date: October 8

text: October 8 – November 1 – Council of Chalcedon, an ecumenical council of the Church: The monophysitism of Eutyches is repudiated, and the Chalcedonian Definition set forth. As a result of this council, the Oriental Orthodox Churches eventually become a separate communion. More immediately, Jerusalem becomes a Patriarchate, and Dioscorus of Alexandria is deposed as Patriarch of Alexandria by the Council.

title: 451

text: Saint Proterius, Patriarch of Alexandria

title: 457

text: Byzantine troops drive the extremist Monophysite party out of Alexandria, and establish Theodosius I as patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

title: 535

text: Peter IV, Coptic Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria

title: 569

text: Damian, Coptic Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria

title: 605

text: John the Merciful, Patriarch of Alexandria

title: 616

title: 620

text: Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester.

title: 1590

section: Events › Date unknown

date: July 13

text: July 13 – The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churches reach an agreement, leading to the promotion of the Ethiopian church to the rank of an autocephalous Patriarchate. Five bishops are immediately consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria and the successor to Abuna Qerellos IV is granted the power to consecrate new bishops, who are empowered to elect a new Patriarch for their church.

title: 1948

section: Events › July


slug: patriarch-of-antioch

label: Patriarch of Antioch

description: traditional title held by the bishop of Antioch

text: Serapion becomes Patriarch of Antioch.

title: AD 191

text: Saint Babylas becomes Patriarch of Antioch.

title: 237

text: Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch (though he is not removed until 272).

title: 269

text: Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch.

title: 272

section: Births

text: Flavian I, Patriarch of Antioch (d. 404)

title: 320

text: Eustathius, Patriarch of Antioch, is banished to Trajanopolis.

title: 330

text: Flavian succeeds Meletius as Patriarch of Antioch.

title: 381

section: Deaths

text: Saint Meletius, Patriarch of Antioch

title: 381

section: Deaths › Date unknown

text: February – Flavian I, Patriarch of Antioch

title: AD 404

text: Domnus II, Patriarch of Antioch, summons a synod of Syrian bishops to confirm the deposition of Athanasius of Perrha.

title: 445

text: Riots erupt in the streets of Antioch, between supporters of Patriarch Flavian II and Emperor Anastasius I, in sympathy with Non-Chalcedonianism.

title: 511

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Peter III of Raqqa, Patriarch of Antioch

title: 591

text: After a 40-year vacancy, Stephen IV becomes Orthodox patriarch of Antioch, at the suggestion of caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik.

title: 742

text: Joseph is consecrated Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch

title: 790

date: August 17

text: August 17 – Quriaqos of Tagrit is consecrated Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch at Harran.

title: 793

date: April 23

text: April 23 – Ignatius George II becomes Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch (or April 22).

title: 1687

section: Events › April–June

date: October 9

text: October 9 – Ignatius Ephrem II Rahmani is elected as the new Patriarch of Antioch, leader of the Syriac Catholic Church, subject to the approval of Pope Leo XIII, which is made on November 28.

title: 1898

section: Events › October


slug: patriarchate-of-aquileia

label: Patriarchate of Aquileia

description: Catholic patriarchate in north-eastern Italy until 18th century

text: Paulinus II, patriarch of Aquileia (approximate date)

title: 726

date: January 11

text: January 11 – Paulinus II, patriarch of Aquileia (or 804)

title: 802

text: War of the Three Henries: Henry III (the Younger), duke of Carinthia, gets involved in a conflict over the Patriarchate of Aquileia (March of Verona) in northeastern Italy. Emperor Otto II (the Red) decides in Aquileia's favor, prompting Henry III to go into revolt. He joins forces with Henry II (the Wrangler), duke of Bavaria. They are both joined by Henry I, bishop of Augsburg.

title: 977

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Gotebald (or Gotebold), patriarch of Aquileia

title: 1063

date: April 3

text: April 3 – Henry IV grants the County of Friuli (with ducal status) to Sigaerd of Beilstein, patriarch of Aquileia. He creates the first Parliament, representing the communes as well the nobility and clergy.

title: 1077

date: April 1

text: April 1 – Ulrich II von Treven, patriarch of Aquileia

title: 1181

date: July 6

text: July 6 – In northern Italy, troops of the semi-independent Patriarchate of Aquileia, led by Bishop Pagano della Torre, are routed in a battle at Bassignana against the Duchy of Milan, led by Duke Galeazzo I Visconti.

title: 1322

section: Events › July – September

section: Culture & Society

date: May 5

text: May 5 – The Istrian Demarcation, setting out the boundaries of disputed Italian territories in the Adriatic Sea peninsula of Istria (part of the modern-day Republic of Croatia), and confirms the agreement between the independent Italian states of Aquileia, Gorizia, and the Venetian Republic. The document is published in three languages (Latin, German and Croatian).

title: 1325

section: Events › April – June


slug: patrician-ancient-rome

label: Patrician (ancient Rome)

description: name given to members of the old-established upper class in ancient Rome

year_label: 486 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: During his third consulate, the Roman consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinus proposes an agrarian law to assist needy plebeians. The proposal is vehemently opposed by the patricians including the other consul Proculus Verginius Tricostus Rutilus, and the plebs turn against the patricians. In the following year Cassius is condemned and executed for high treason.

title: 486 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 460 BCE

text: Conflicts arise between the Roman patricians and plebeians. There is also a revolt by Rome's slaves. During the revolt, the Campidoglio is held by the slaves for a lengthy period, along with the most important temples of Rome. It is during this revolt that consul Publius Valerius Publicola dies. The revolt only ends with the arrival of an army from Tusculum, led by Tusculan dictator Lucius Mamilius. Meanwhile, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus is appointed as consul to replace Publicola.

title: 460 BC

year_label: 454 BCE

text: The Roman Plebs, suffering from a number of economic and financial ills, force the city’s patricians to begin the reform and codification of the law. As a first act, a three-man commission is sent to Athens to study that city's laws.

title: 454 BC

year_label: 451 BCE

text: Following the report of a three-man commission into the design of Roman law, the patricians set up in Rome a Board of Ten, the Decemviri. The first Decemviri, composed entirely of patricians is led by consuls Appius Claudius Crassus and Titus Genucius Augurinus. The first ten codes of the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables are completed by the first Decemvirate.

title: 451 BC

year_label: 445 BCE

section: Science & Discovery

text: A new law, the Lex Canuleia removes the ban on inter-marriage of the Roman classes, i.e. plebeian with patrician.

title: 445 BC

year_label: 443 BCE

text: No consuls are elected in Rome, but rather military tribunes with consular power are appointed in their stead. While only patricians could be consuls, some military tribunes were plebeians. These positions had responsibility for the census, a vital function in the financial administration of Rome. So to stop the plebeians from possibly gaining control of the census, the patricians remove from the consuls and tribunes the right to take the census, and rather entrust it to two magistrates, called censores who were to be chosen exclusively from the patricians in Rome.

title: 443 BC

year_label: 439 BCE

section: Climate & Environment

text: Spurius Maelius, a wealthy Roman plebeian, tries to buy popular support with the aim of making himself king. During the severe famine affecting Rome, he buys up a large store of grain and sells it at a low price to the people of Rome – the first time this had been done in Rome. This leads Lucius Minucius, the patrician praefectus annonae ("president of the market"), to accuse Maelius of seeking to take over the government.

title: 439 BC

year_label: 367 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: During the ten-year period that Gaius Licinius (Calvus) Stolo is tribune in Rome (376 BC to 367 BC) he does much to reduce the enmity between patricians and plebs by reforming a number of laws. During his term, he proposes the Lex Licinia Sextia, which restores the consulship to the plebs, requires a plebeian consul seat, limits the amount of public land that one person can hold, and regulates debts. The patricians oppose these laws, though they are now finally passed and take effect from 366 BC.

title: 367 BC

year_label: 366 BCE

text: Two additional aediles, called curule ("higher") aediles, are created in the Roman hierarchy. These are at first patricians; but those of the next year are plebeians and so on year by year alternately. They are elected in the assembly of the tribes, with the consul presiding.

title: 366 BC

year_label: 312 BCE

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: The Roman censor, Appius Claudius Caecus, a patrician, enters office and begins construction of the Appian Way (the Via Appia) between Rome and Capua. He also embarks on a program of political reform, including the distribution of the landless citizens of Rome among the tribes, which at this time constitute basic political units. Appius also admits sons of freedmen into the Roman Senate. He also asserts the right of freed slaves to hold office.

title: 312 BC

section: Events › By place › Italy

date: January 1

text: January 1 – Emperor Honorius forces his half-sister Galla Placidia into marriage to Constantius, his general (magister militum). He is appointed patricius and becomes a prominent member of the House of Theodosius.

title: 417

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Crime & Justice

date: May

text: May - Flavius Felix, his wife and a deacon are accused of plotting against Aetius. They are arrested in Ravenna and executed. Aetius is granted the title of patricius (Roman nobility).

title: 430

text: Petronius Maximus, prominent aristocrat, is given the title of Patrician. He becomes the most honored of all non-imperial Romans, and political rival of Flavius Aetius.

title: 445

text: The Roman Senate petitions Zeno to recognize Nepos as deposed and take the sole emperorship himself, abolishing the 81-year-long east/west division of the empire and recognizing Odoacer's authority in Italy. Zeno declines the first request, but names Odoacer Patricius, investing his rule with Imperial legitimacy.

title: 476

text: Anicius Maximus, Roman patrician

title: 552

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Mezezius, Byzantine general and patrikios ("first patrician"), is proclaimed emperor by the army in Syracuse. Constantine IV organizes an expedition to suppress the military revolt in Sicily.

title: 668

text: June – Emperor Justinian II sends a punitive expedition to Italy under the patrikios Theodore, to intervene in the dispute between Pope Constantine I and Archbishop Felix of Ravenna, who claims to be independent of the pope's authority. Theodore captures Ravenna, and arrests Felix and other Italian leaders. He deports them to Constantinople, from whence they are exiled to Cherson (Crimea).

title: 709

text: The Byzantine outpost of Cherson (Crimea) rebels (with Khazar assistance) against Emperor Justinian II. He sends a fleet under the patrikios Stephen, which retakes the city and restores Byzantine control. The fleet, however, is struck by a storm on its way back and loses many ships, while the Chersonites, again with the aid of the Khazars, rebel anew.

title: 710

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Pope Stephen II re-consecrates Pepin III (the Short) as king of the Franks, at the Basilica of Saint-Denis outside Paris, bestowing upon him the additional title of Patricius of the Romans. This marks the first recorded crowning of a civil ruler by a pope. Pepin assumes the role of ordained protector of the Catholic Church.

title: 754

date: October 31

text: October 31 – Empress Irene is deposed after a 5-year reign, and banished to Lesbos. High-ranking patricians place Nikephoros, the minister of finance (logothetes tou genikou), on the throne. He is crowned in the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, by Patriarch Tarasios, as emperor of the Byzantine Empire.

title: 802

text: Mastalus II, duke and patrician of Amalfi (Italy)

title: 958

text: Kalokyros, Byzantine patrician and pretender

title: 971

text: Bisantius Guirdeliku, Italian nobleman (patrikios)

title: 1070


slug: patriot-american-revolution

label: Patriot (American Revolution)

description: American colonists who rejected British rule in the American Revolution

section: Births

date: July 16

text: July 16 – Samuel Huntington, Patriot in the American Revolution and politician (d. 1796)

title: 1731

date: June 9

text: June 9 – Gaspee Affair: In an act of defiance against the British Navigation Acts, American patriots, led by Abraham Whipple, attack and burn the British customs schooner HMS Gaspee off of Rhode Island.

title: 1772

date: September 1

text: September 1 – Powder Alarm: Thomas Gage, royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, orders British soldiers to remove gunpowder from a magazine, causing Patriots to prepare for war.

title: 1774

section: Events › July–September

date: November 7

text: November 7 – American Revolution: John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, British royal governor of the Colony of Virginia, signs Dunmore's Proclamation, declaring martial law and offering freedom to slaves of Patriots who run away from their owners and join the Loyalist forces (formal proclamation November 15) thus losing the support of planters who see slaves as their vital livelihood.

title: 1775

section: Events › July–December

text: January 1 – American Revolutionary War: Burning of Norfolk – The town of Norfolk, Virginia is destroyed, by the combined actions of the British Royal Navy and occupying Patriot forces.

title: 1776

section: Events › January–February

date: March 17

text: March 17 – American Revolutionary War: Threatened by Patriot cannons on Dorchester Heights, the British evacuate Boston, ending the 11‑month Siege of Boston.

title: 1776

section: Events › March–April

date: March 25

text: March 25 – American Revolutionary War: American Patriots conduct a Raid on Tybee Island, primarily seeking to capture runaway slaves who sought refuge with British forces stationed there.

title: 1776

date: March 4

text: March 4 – American Revolutionary War: American Patriots capture Dorchester Heights, dominating the port of Boston.

title: 1776

date: April 27

text: April 27 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Ridgefield: The British Army defeats Patriot militias, galvanizing resistance in the Connecticut Colony.

title: 1777

date: August 6

text: August 6 – American Revolutionary War – Battle of Oriskany: Loyalists gain a tactical victory over Patriots; Iroquois fight on both sides.

title: 1777

date: May 29

text: May 29 – American Revolutionary War – Waxhaw Massacre: Loyalist forces under Colonel Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers.

title: 1780

date: October 7

text: October 7 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Kings Mountain: Patriot militia forces annihilate Loyalists under British Major Patrick Ferguson, at Kings Mountain, South Carolina.

title: 1780

section: Events › October–December

date: July 29

text: July 29 – American Revolution – Skirmish at the House in the Horseshoe: A Tory force under David Fanning attacks Phillip Alston's smaller force of Whigs, at Alston's home in Cumberland County, North Carolina (in present day Moore County, North Carolina). Alston's troops surrender, after Fanning's men attempt to ram the house with a cart of burning straw.

title: 1781


slug: paul-of-tarsus

label: Paul of Tarsus

year_label: 37 CE

section: Religion & Belief

text: The Pharisee Saul of Tarsus is converted to Christianity, after a vision (possible date). After the year 39, he is recognised as Saint Paul.

title: 30s

section: Events › 37 AD › Anatolia

text: Paul of Tarsus begins his missionary travels, according to one traditional dating scheme.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 45

text: Paul starts his evangelistic work (first missionary journey), accompanied by Barnabas and Mark (possible date).

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 47

year_label: 48 CE

text: Paul of Tarsus through his first mission goes to Cyprus and Asia Minor.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 48

year_label: 55 CE

text: The apostle Paul writes his First Epistle to the Corinthians.

title: 50s

section: Events › 55 AD › Anatolia

year_label: 57 CE

text: Paul of Tarsus writes his Second Epistle to the Corinthians and his Epistle to the Romans (probable date).

title: 50s

section: Events › 57 AD › Greece

year_label: 58 CE

text: The apostle Paul returns to Jerusalem with the money he has collected to give the Christian community there. However, he is accused of defiling the temple, and is arrested and imprisoned in Caesarea. He then invokes his Roman citizenship and is sent to Rome to be judged.

title: 50s

section: Events › 58 AD › Palestine

text: Paul of Tarsus journeys to Rome, but is shipwrecked on Malta. He stays for three months and converts Publius, the first bishop of Malta.

title: AD 60

section: Events › By topic › Religion

year_label: 62 CE

text: Paul of Tarsus is released from imprisonment in Rome (approximate date).

title: AD 62

year_label: 65 CE

text: Paul of Tarsus ordains Timothy as bishop of Ephesus (traditional date).

title: AD 65


slug: paul-the-apostle

label: Paul the Apostle

description: Early Christian apostle and missionary (c. AD 5 – c. 64/65)

year_label: 5 CE

text: AD 5 – Paul the Apostle, Jewish leader of the Christians

title: 0s

year_label: 34 CE

text: Saul of Tarsus, on the road to Damascus, is converted to Christianity, and becomes Paul the Apostle (possible date).

title: 30s

section: Events › 34 AD › Syria

year_label: 49 CE

text: The Apostle Paul begins his second missionary journey with Silas while Barnabas goes to Cyprus with Mark.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 49

year_label: 53 CE

text: Paul the Apostle writes his epistle to the Galatians from Ephesus (approximate date).

title: 50s

section: Events › 53 AD › Anatolia

year_label: 59 CE

text: Paul the Apostle pleads his case and testifies to his Christianity before King Agrippa II of the Herodians, who reportedly responds "You almost persuade me to be a Christian."

title: 50s

section: Events › 59 AD › Palestine

year_label: 64 CE

text: Paul leaves Titus in Crete as bishop (approximate date) Then goes to Asia Minor

title: AD 64

section: Deaths

text: Paul the Apostle (earliest date) (b. AD 5)

title: AD 64

year_label: 67 CE

text: Apostles Peter and Paul are martyred in Rome (possible date).

title: AD 67

text: Paul the Apostle, Christian martyr (b. c. AD 5)

title: AD 67

year_label: 68 CE

text: Apostles Peter and Paul are martyred in Rome (latest possible date).

title: AD 68

text: William I (the Pious) of Aquitaine, donates land in Burgundy for the building of a Benedictine monastery dedicated to the saints Peter and Paul. Hence the Abbey of Cluny, becomes the largest in the West. In the foundation charter, William renounces all rights to the monastery and nominates Berno as the first abbot of Cluny (Eastern France). He places the monastery directly under the control of the Papal See.

title: 910


slug: pavia

label: Pavia

description: Italian comune

section: Conflict & Security

text: Battle of Pavia: The Roman army pursues the Alamanni in Lombardy. Aurelian closes the passes in the Alps and encircles the invaders near Pavia. The Alamanni are destroyed and Aurelian receives the title Germanicus Maximus.

title: 271

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Crime & Justice

date: August 13

text: August 13 – During a review of troops at Pavia, the soldiers stationed at this city murder the dignitaries present, then rage through the city, slaying anyone they suspected of being a supporter of Stilicho.

title: 408

text: The Ostrogoths capture the cities Pavia and Milan. The majority of Odoacer's army, including his magister militum Tufa, surrenders to Theodoric.

title: 489

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: King Theodoric the Great retreats to Ticinum (modern Pavia), where he constructs a fortified camp, which is blockaded.

title: 490

text: Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, Roman philosopher, is arrested on charges of having conspired against Theodoric the Great. He is imprisoned at Pavia (Lombardy).

title: 522

date: October 23

text: October 23 – Anicius Manlius Boethius, one of Rome's most prolific writers and philosophers, is beaten to death at the prison at Pavia, where he has been imprisoned for treason. During his prison sentence, he has written his final work, The Consolation of Philosophy. The date of the death of St. Boethius is later celebrated as his feast day on the Roman Catholic Calendar of Saints.

title: 524

text: Siege of Pavia (569–572): King Alboin captures Ticinum (Pavia); after a siege the Byzantine garrison surrenders to the Lombards. The city is of strategic importance, lying at the rivers Po and Ticino, and becomes the capital of the Kingdom of the Lombards.

title: 572

text: The Lombards re-establish a unified monarchy after a 10-year interregnum (Rule of the Dukes). Threatened by a Frankish invasion that the dukes have provoked, they elect Authari (son of Cleph) as their king and give him the capital of Pavia (Northern Italy).

title: 584

text: Perctarit and Godepert become co-rulers of the Lombards, following the death of their father Aripert I. They split the kingdom, and establish their capitals in Milan and Pavia (northern Italy).

title: 661

text: Raginpert dies, and King Liutpert (succeeded and deposed in 700) returns to the throne of the Lombards. Raginpert's son Aripert captures Liutpert at his capital in Pavia, and will have him strangled in his bath. Aripert becomes new ruler of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy.

title: 701

text: Ansprand, duke of Asti, returns from exile to Italy with a large Bavarian army. Many Austrians (with troops of Venetia) join him in support. King Aripert II, who usurped the throne in 701, is defeated and tries to escape from Pavia to Gaul with his treasury, but drowns in the Ticino River. He is the last Bavarian to wear the Iron Crown (approximate date).

title: AD 711

date: February

text: February – King Ansprand dies, and is succeeded by his son Liutprand as ruler of the Lombards. During his reign, Liutprand becomes the greatest of the Lombard Kings. Coins and documents from his court at Pavia confirm the impression of a strong and effective monarch.

title: 712

text: The Lombards under King Liutprand sack the Exarchate of Ravenna, and threaten Rome. Pope Gregory III asks Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, to help fight the Lombards (he also requests assistance in fighting the Byzantines and the Arabs). Liutprand signs a peace accord, and pulls back his forces to Pavia. After the pope's appeal to the Franks, a relationship begins that will continue as the Frankish Kingdom gains power.

title: 739

text: Fall – Pope Stephen II travels to the Lombard capital of Pavia, for negotiations with Aistulf. His terms for returning the Exarchate of Ravenna are declined.

title: 753

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Desiderius deposes Alboin, duke of Spoleto (Central Italy), and exercises ducal authority himself, tying the duchy more closely to the Lombard capital of Pavia.

title: 758

text: King Charlemagne signs a peace treaty with Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria, and marries the Lombard princess Desiderata (daughter of King Desiderius). He travels to the Lombard court at Pavia to conclude arrangements. Pope Stephen III opposes the marriage, and protests about a Frankish-Lombard alliance.

title: 770

date: December 4

text: December 4 – King Carloman I, youngest son of Pepin III ("the Short"), dies (of a severe nosebleed, according to one source) at the Villa of Samoussy, leaving his brother Charlemagne sole ruler of the now reunified Frankish Kingdom. Gerberga, the widow of Carloman, flees with her two sons to the court of King Desiderius of the Lombards, at Pavia.

title: 771

text: Summer – King Charlemagne and his uncle Bernard, son of Charles Martel, cross the Alps with a Frankish expeditionary force at the request of Pope Adrian I. At the foot of the mountains in the Susa Valley (Northern Italy), the Franks are hindered by Lombard fortifications. After scouting, Charlemagne attacks the defenders from the flank, and forces the Lombards to flee to the fortified capital Pavia.

title: 773

date: December 29

text: December 29 – King Charles the Bald, supported by Pope John VIII, travels to Italy. He receives the Imperial Regalia at Pavia, and is crowned Holy Roman Emperor as Charles II at Rome.

title: 875

date: December 26

text: December 26 – In an assembly at Pavia (Northern Italy), the lords of Lombardia elect Berengar I, a grandson of former emperor Louis the Pious (through his daughter Gisela), as king of Italy. He is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. After the deposition of Charles the Fat, the nobility chooses Ranulf II as duke (or 'king') of Aquitaine.

title: 887

text: Guy III, duke of Spoleto, defeats the Lombard king Berengar I at the Trebbia River, and is acclaimed as king of Italy at an assembly in Pavia. After confirming some privileges to the Catholic Church, he is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, by Pope Stephen V. Berengar is forced to retreat to Verona; Guy does not pursue him into Friuli, because of the (possible) wrath of King Arnulf of Carinthia.

title: 889

date: February 21

text: February 21 – Guy III, duke of Spoleto, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Stephen V. His son Lambert is proclaimed king of Italy, at the capital of Pavia in Lombardy.

title: 891

text: An East Frankish expeditionary force under Zwentibold, the eldest son of King Arnulf of Carinthia, crosses the Alps into Friuli. He makes junction at Verona, with the army of the deposed king Berengar I, and proceeds to lay siege to Pavia. After a three-month campaign, Zwentibold receives orders to head back to Bavaria, in case of a Magyar intervention.

title: 893

text: Spring – King Arnulf of Carinthia invades Italy at the head of an East Frankish expeditionary army, joining up with the deposed king Berengar I at Verona. He conquers Brescia after little resistance, and sacks Bergamo after a one-month siege. The cities of Milan and Pavia open their doors to Arnulf. Emperor Guy III escapes from Pavia, to hide in the mountains of Spoleto (Umbria).

title: 894

date: December

text: December – Arnulf of Carinthia invades Italy, at the head of an East Frankish expeditionary army. He arrives in Pavia and reorganizes the Lombard state. Arnulf partitions the northern part of the kingdom: the western half (March of Lombardy) and the eastern half (March of Verona).

title: 895

date: November

text: November – Lambert II and Berengar I agree to sign a treaty at Pavia. Berengar receives the realm between the Adda and the Po, while the rest stays under the control of Lambert (including the March of Tuscany). They share Bergamo, and Lambert pledges to marry Gisela, Berengar's daughter.

title: 896

text: Summer – Adalbert II, margrave of Tuscany, revolts (pushed by his wife Bertha) against his cousin, Emperor Lambert II. The Tuscan army proceeds against the Lombard capital of Pavia. Lambert with his forces at Marengo defeats Adalbert at Borgo San Donnino, taking him, as a prisoner, to Pavia.

title: 898

date: October 12

text: October 12 – Following Magyars raids in Lombardy, king Louis III ("the Blind") is called to Italy by the grandees. He takes Pavia, forcing king Berengar I to flee, and replaces him as King of Italy.

title: 900

text: Louis III, Holy Roman Emperor, launches another attempt to invade Italy. A Frankish expeditionary force, led by Adalbert I of Ivrea, captures Pavia, and Berengar I retires to Verona.

title: 905

text: Adalbert I, margrave of Ivrea, leads a rebellion with the support of the Italian nobles against King Berengar I. He crosses the Alps into Burgundy and invites Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy to invade Italy. Berengar flees again to Verona and Rudolph is crowned King of Italy at Pavia.

title: 922

date: February 12

text: February 12 – (1 Dhu al-Qi'dah 311 A.H.) Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh is removed from office as the Abbasid Governor of Egypt by the Caliph al-Muqtadir after less than six months in office and is replaced by Takin al-Khazari. who, following his death, sack and burn the city of Pavia. They Hungarian forces penetrate as far as the Pyrenees.

title: 924

section: Events › January—March

date: March 24

text: March 24 – Hungarian Magyar forces led by General Szalárd, capture Pavia, capital of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, at the request of the Holy Roman Emperor Berengar. Later, after crossing the Alps via the St. Bernard Pass, the Magyars pillage Provence, Septimania and Nismes in southern France).

title: 924

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Spring – Hugh of Provence, king of Italy, launches an expedition to Rome to remove the Roman ruler (princeps) Alberic II and avenge his humiliation (see 932). It fails, however, as Roman civic militias repel the Lombard army. Hugh ravages the Italian countryside, before he withdraws to Pavia.

title: 933

date: April 13

text: April 13 – Hugh of Provence abdicates the throne in favor of his son Lothair II (who has been co-ruler since 931) and is acclaimed as sole king of Lombardia. Hugh is allowed to retire in Pavia.

title: 945

text: Summer – At the Reichstag in Augsburg (assembled by King Otto I), joined by German nobles and bishops, Berengar of Ivrea pays homage. He becomes a vassal of the East Frankish Kingdom. Otto leaves a strong garrison at Pavia in the hands of his son-in-law Conrad the Red, duke of Lotharingia.

title: 952

text: Berengar of Ivrea dispatches a Lombard army under his son Adalbert II to counter Liudolf, while he guards Pavia himself. In two battles Liudolf defeats the Lombard forces and enters Pavia, there to receive the homage of the Italian nobles and clergy on behalf of Otto I.

title: 956

text: Summer – Otto I leads an expeditionary force into northern Italy through the Brenner Pass at Trento, to assist the beleaguered young Pope John XII. He proceeds towards Pavia – King Berengar II sends his son and co-ruler Adalbert II from Rome at the head of a large army to seize control of the Upper Adige and contest Otto's entry.

title: 961

text: Otto I proceeds to lay siege to Lake Garda, where the sons of Berengar II, Guy of Ivrea and Adalbert II (co-ruler of Italy), and their supporters are holed up. Finding severe resistance, Otto gives up the enterprise and returns to Pavia, the capital of Lombardy.

title: 962

text: Otto I 'the Great', Holy Roman Emperor, assembles a large expeditionary force at Pavia, joined by Spoletan troops. He counter-attacks, relieves the siege of Capua and devastates the area around Naples. Otto enters Benevento, where he is received as 'liberator' by Landulf IV and in the cities of Apulia (Southern Italy).

title: 969

date: February 15

text: February 15 – At an assembly at Pavia of Lombard nobles and secondi milites (the minor nobles), Arduin of Ivrea (grandson of former King Berengar II) is restored to his domains and crowned as King of Italy in the Basilica of San Michele Maggiore. Arduin is supported by Arnulf II, archbishop of Milan.

title: 1002

date: May 14

text: May 14 – Henry II is crowned King of Italy by Archbishop Arnulf II in Pavia. A quarrel ensues between the German troops and the Pavese citizens. Henry orders a massacre of the population in response, destroying the city.

title: 1004

text: Pope Benedict VIII convenes a synod at Pavia. He issues decrees to restrain simony and incontinence of the clergy.

title: 1022

text: Spring – King Conrad II, "the Elder", assembles an army of thousands of armored knights for an expedition into Italy. He besieges Pavia and marches to Milan, where he is crowned with the Iron Crown by Archbishop Aribert as king of the Lombards. Duke William V ("the Great") of Aquitaine, who is already en route for Italy, decides to renounce his claim to the Lombard throne and turns back.

title: 1026

text: February – At an Imperial Diet in Pavia (assembled by Conrad II), Aribert is accused of fomenting a revolt against the Holy Roman Empire, Conrad orders his arrest.

title: 1037

text: August 15 – The Pavian-born Benedictine Lanfranc is appointed as the new Archbishop of Canterbury in England.

title: 1070

text: October 28 – A French army invading Italy, under King Francis, besieges Pavia, months before the Battle of Pavia.

title: 1524

text: October 5 – French and Venetian troops kill thousands of civilians in the Italian city of Pavia, even after the defenders agree to surrender.

title: 1527

text: September 19 – War of the League of Cognac: The Italian city of Pavia is besieged for the fifth and last time during the decade, after having been attacked in 1522, 1524, 1527, and in May of 1528. Troops from a coalition of the Venetian Republic, the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Milan break through the city walls after six days of bombardment, kill 700 of the defenders, and recover the city for Francesco II Sforza, Duke of Milan.

title: 1528

text: Teseo Ambrogio's Introductio in Chaldaicam lingua, Syriaca atq Armenica, & dece alias linguas, published in Pavia, introduces several Middle Eastern languages to western Europe for the first time.

title: 1539


slug: pechenegs

label: Pechenegs

description: extinct Turkic people

text: The Magyars, an Ugric tribe from the steppe of Central Asia, move west under the leadership of Árpád. They are pushed by their rivals, the Pechenegs, into the Balkan Peninsula, and become entangled in a war between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire. The Magyars head north and settle in Great Moravia.

title: 889

text: Vladimir, ruler (khan) of the Bulgarian Empire, is dethroned by his father Boris I, with help from loyal boyars. He is blinded, and succeeded by his brother Simeon I, as prince of Bulgaria; the capital is moved from Pliska to Preslav. Simeon makes an alliance with the Pechenegs (or Patzinaks), a semi-nomad Turkic tribe from the Central Asian steppes.

title: 893

text: Spring and Summer – The Hungarians make an alliance with the Pechenegs, and fight their way through Thrace to Constantinople.

title: 934

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Emperor Nikephoros II receives a Bulgarian embassy led by Prince Boris (the son of Tsar Peter I of Bulgaria), with a plea for help against the invading Kievan Rus'. Nikephoros, occupied in the East, is unable to support him. Instead he sends envoys to summon the Pechenegs to aid Boris. They besiege Kiev, but Grand Prince Sviatoslav I (on campaign in Bulgaria) returns with a Kievan relief force, and defeats the Pechenegs. He drives them out into the Steppe, and sets up viceroys to rule his Rus' territory.

title: 968

text: Summer – Grand Prince Sviatoslav I invades Bulgaria at the head of a Kievan army, which includes Pecheneg and Hungarian auxiliary forces. He defeats the Bulgarians in a major battle and retakes Pereyaslavets. Boris II capitulates and impales 300 Bulgarian boyars for disloyalty. Sviatoslav assigns garrisons to the conquered fortresses in Northern Bulgaria.

title: 969

text: Emperor John I delegates the war in the Balkans to his brother-in-law, the Domestic of the Schools Bardas Skleros, and to the eunuch general Peter Phokas, who begin to gather a Byzantine army in Thrace. At the news of this, a powerful Kievan expeditionary force (30,000 men), along with many Bulgarians and a Pecheneg contingent, is sent south over the Balkan Mountains. After sacking the Bulgarian stronghold of Philippolis (modern-day Plovdiv), they bypass the heavily defended city of Adrianople, and turn towards Constantinople.

title: 970

text: Spring – Grand Prince Sviatoslav I is ambushed by the Pechenegs (possibly in the service of the Byzantines) and killed during his attempt to cross the Dnieper rapids (modern Ukraine). His skull is made into a drinking cup. Sviatoslav is succeeded by his eldest son Yaropolk I as ruler of Kiev, which leads to a civil war with his brother Oleg.

title: 972

date: August 14

text: August 14 – Bolesław I accepts the surrender of Kiev by the Pechenegs. He reinstates Sviatopolk I as Grand Prince of Kiev.

title: 1018

text: Winter – Constantine IX allows the Pecheneg tribes to cross the Danube and settle permanently in Byzantine territory. He buys their alliance with presents, using them to attack his enemies (Bulgars and Magyars) in the rear, and so to prevent any southward advance of the Kievan Rus'.

title: 1047

text: Spring – Pecheneg Revolt: Emperor Constantine IX decides to transfer 15,000 Pecheneg warriors from their positions in the Balkans to the eastern front. Upon approaching the Bosporus, the Pechenegs decide to turn back, and march through Bulgaria, until they reach the Byzantine city of Serdia. Later, joined by followers, the Pecheneg tribes raise the banner of revolt in Thrace.

title: 1049

text: End of the Pecheneg Revolt: Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos makes peace with the Pechenegs. However, Pecheneg raids do not cease; they not only damage the economy by plundering, but Constantine is also forced to buy protection or peace from them by gifts, land grants, privileges and titles.

title: 1053

text: Fall – The Magyars cross the Danube River, together with several Pecheneg tribes, but are halted by Byzantine forces (approximate date).

title: 1059

text: Spring – Tzachas, a Seljuk Turkish military commander, establishes an independent maritime state centred in the Ionian coastal city of Smyrna (modern-day İzmir). He proclaims himself emperor (basileus), and concludes an alliance with the Pechenegs in Thrace. Tzachas uses his fleet to blockade Constantinople by sea, while the Pechenegs besiege the capital by land.

title: 1091

date: June 26

text: June 26 – The People's Crusade (some 30,000 men) led by Peter the Hermit crosses the Sava (stealing boats from the local fishermen) but are attacked by Pechenegs and Hungarian forces. The citizens of Belgrade flee and the crusaders pillage and burn the city. Peter travels for seven days, and arrives at Niš.

title: 1096

section: Events › By place › First Crusade

text: Emperor John II Komnenos recovers southwestern Anatolia (modern Turkey) from the Seljuk Turks and then hastens to the Balkans, where the Pechenegs are continuing their incursions. He transfers Byzantine troops to the Danube frontier at Paristrion.

title: 1121

text: Battle of Beroia: Emperor John II Komnenos transfers the Byzantine field army from Asia Minor (where it has been engaged against the Seljuk Turks) to the Balkans. The Pechenegs who have set up their camp (defended by a circular formation of wagons) near Beroia (modern Bulgaria) are defeated. John orders the Varangian Guard (some 480 men), the elite Palace Guard to hack their way through the Pecheneg circle of wagons, causing a general rout in their camp. Pecheneg survivors are taken captive and enlisted into the Byzantine army.

title: 1122


slug: pedro-i-of-brazil

label: Pedro I of Brazil

description: Emperor of Brazil from 1822 to 1831 and King of Portugal in 1826 (1798-1834)

date: December 1

text: December 1 – Pedro I is crowned as the first Emperor of Brazil.

title: 1822

section: Events › October–December

date: January 9

text: January 9 – The Portuguese prince Pedro I of Brazil decides to stay in Brazil against the orders of the Portugal's King João VI, beginning the Brazilian independence process.

title: 1822

section: Events › January–March

text: October 12 – Pedro, Crown Prince of Portugal, is declared the constitutional Emperor of Brazil, as Pedro the First.

title: 1822

date: May 5

text: May 5 – Emperor Pedro I of Brazil inaugurates Brazil's first Assembleia Geral, with 50 Senators and 102 Deputies.

title: 1823

section: Events › April–June

date: November 15

text: November 15 – King Joao VI of Portugal promulgates a law recognizing his eldest son, Dom Pedro, as the Emperor of Brazil.

title: 1825

date: December 11

text: December 11 – Queen-Empress Maria Leopoldina, consort of Pedro IV of Portugal & I of Brazil (b. 1797)

title: 1826

section: Deaths › July–December

date: March 10

text: March 10 – Dom João VI, King of Portugal and former Emperor of Brazil, dies six days after he had been served dinner while visiting Jerónimos Monastery. An investigative autopsy 174 years later will discover that he had been killed by arsenic poisoning. King João's, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, sails back to Portugal and briefly reigns as King Pedro IV of Portugal, before turning over the Portuguese throne to his daughter, Maria.

title: 1826

date: May 28

text: May 28 – The Emperor Pedro I of Brazil abdicates as King of Portugal.

title: 1826

date: March 3

text: March 3 – Dom Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil and former King of Portugal, signs a document "to complete my abdication of the Portuguese crown" (made in 1826), to renounce all claims in favor of his daughter Queen Maria II, and to declare "indubitable proof" that he wishes Portugal to be "perpetually separated from the Brazilian nation....in such a manner as may render even the idea of reunion impracticable."

title: 1828

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Pedro I abdicates as Emperor of Brazil in favor of his 5-year-old son Pedro II, who will reign for almost 59 years.

title: 1831

section: Births

text: December 1 – Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil, daughter of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (d. 1853)

title: 1831

section: Births › July–December

date: February 4

text: February 4 – Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil, daughter of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (b. 1831)

title: 1853

section: Deaths › January–June

date: January 26

text: January 26 – Empress Amélie, consort of Pedro I of Brazil (b. 1812)

title: 1873


slug: peloponnese

label: Peloponnese

description: large peninsula and geographic region in southern Greece

year_label: 480 BCE

date: September 21

text: September 21 – The Persians sack Athens, whose citizens flee to Salamis and then Peloponnesus.

title: 480 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 457 BCE

text: Athenian forces block the routes back to the Peloponnese, so the Spartans decide to remain in Boeotia and await the Athenian attack. The Athenians and their allies, with 14,000 men under the command of Myronides, meet the Spartans at Battle of Tanagra. The Spartans win the battle, but they lose many men and so are unable to follow up on their victory.

title: 457 BC

year_label: 431 BCE

text: The Athenian fleet raids the Peloponnese and pilages the area around Methone. The town is saved through an intervention by the Spartan general Brasidas. The Athenians then sail on laying waste to the coastal areas of the western Peloponnese.

title: 431 BC

year_label: 344 BCE

text: The Athenian statesman, Demosthenes, travels to Peloponnesus, in order to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts are generally unsuccessful. Most of the Peloponnesians see Philip II as the guarantor of their freedom, so they send a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities. In response to these complaints, Demosthenes delivers the Second Philippic, which is a vehement attack against Philip II.

title: 344 BC

year_label: 313 BCE

text: Becoming tired of Macedonian rule, the people of Epirus recall their former king Aeacides (who until then had been campaigning with his old ally Polyperchon in the Peloponnese). Cassander immediately sends an army against him under his brother Philip, who is diverted from invading Aetolia.

title: 313 BC

text: Aristodemus and his mercenary army (recruited the year prior) cross over to the Peloponnese and fight Alexander, the son of Polyperchon, at Cyllene, and liberate Patrae and Aegium from Cassander's garrisons. Aristodemus then returns to Aetolia, leaving a sizeable force in the Pelopponese who help the city of Dyme eject its garrison, despite a failed intervention by Alexander.

title: 313 BC

text: Telesphorus arrives in to the Peloponnese and starts expelling Cassander's garrisons. He successfully liberates all cities and towns that are being held for Cassander by Polyperchon and his son Alexander; all except Sicyon and Corinth who are being defended by Polyperchon and Alexander themselves.

title: 312 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece/Macedon/Thrace

text: Telesphorus comes to the aid of Oreus from the Peloponnese with 20 ships and 1,000 infantry, while Antigonid admiral Medius sails to relieve Oreus with a 100 ships from Asia Minor; they break Cassander's blockade.

title: 312 BC

year_label: 303 BCE

text: Demetrius Poliorcetes invades the Peloponnese and occupies Corinth, Sicyon, and Argos in the Peloponnese, and Achaea, Elis and almost all of Arcadia join his side.

title: 303 BC

year_label: 253 BCE

text: Alexander, Antigonus II's nephew and regent, leads a revolt in Corinth with Ptolemy II's help and declares himself an independent monarch. As a result, Antigonus loses Corinth and Chalcis, the two bases from which he has dominated southern Greece. As the Aetolians occupy Thermopylae, Antigonus II is cut off from Athens and the Peloponnese.

title: 253 BC

year_label: 251 BCE

text: Aratus recalls back to Sicyon those exiled by Nicocles. This leads to confusion and division within the city. Fearing that Antigonus II will exploit these divisions to attack the city, Aratus applies for the city to join the Achaean League, a league of a few small Achaean towns in the Peloponnese. Aratus then gains the financial support of the Egyptian king Ptolemy II to enable the Achaean League to defend itself against Macedonia.

title: 251 BC

year_label: 241 BCE

text: As general of the Achaean League, Aratus of Sicyon defeats the Aetolians at Pellene and then pursues a policy of establishing democracies in the Peloponnese.

title: 241 BC

year_label: 223 BCE

text: The king of Macedonia, Antigonus III Doson, restores Macedonian influence in the Peloponnese for the first time in almost two decades. After signing alliances with the Achaeans, Boeotians, Thessalians and the Acarnanians, Antigonus invades the Peloponnese and drives the Spartans out of Argos, taking Orchomenus and Mantineia in the process.

title: 223 BC

year_label: 188 BCE

text: The leader of the Achaean League, Philopoemen, enters northern Laconia with his army and a group of Spartan exiles. His army demolishes the wall that the former tyrant of Sparta, Nabis, has built around Sparta. Philopoemen then restores Spartan citizenship to the exiles and abolishes Spartan law, introducing Achaean law in its place. Sparta's role as a major power in Greece ends, while the Achaean League becomes the dominant power throughout the Peloponnese.

title: 188 BC

year_label: 31 BCE

text: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa sails with 300 war galleys to the western Peloponnese, and occupies strategic positions around the Gulf of Corinth to cut off Antony's line of communication.

title: 31 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

text: Revolt of Alaric I: The Visigoths, led by Alaric I, rampage through Greece and plunder Corinth, Argos and Sparta. They destroy the Temple of Eleusis, and harry the Peloponnese. Stilicho makes peace with the Goths, and allows them to settle in Epirus (Balkans).

title: 396

text: Revolt of Alaric I: Stilicho traps the Visigoths under King Alaric in the Peloponnese, but decides to abandon the campaign against the Visigoths in Greece, thus allowing King Alaric to escape north to Epirus with his loot. Presumably, Stilicho has left Greece in order to prepare for military action in northern Africa, where a rebellion (see Gildonic Revolt in 398) seems imminent.

title: 397

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: The Hexamilion wall is constructed. Fortifications are built across the Isthmus of Corinth, guarding the only land route into the Peloponnese peninsula from Greece.

title: 408

text: Summer – Vandal War (461-468): King Genseric extends his pirate raids in the Mediterranean Sea; the Vandals sack and enslave the people living in Illyricum, the Peloponnese and other parts of Greece. Leo I joins forces with the Western Empire.

title: 467

text: The Vandals invade Epirus (modern Greece). They are expelled from the Peloponnese (Greece) and in retaliation, the Vandals take 500 hostages at Zakynthos. On the way back to Carthage they are slaughtered.

title: 469

text: The city of Monemvasia (Peloponnese) is founded by people seeking refuge from the Slavs and Avars.

title: 583

text: Slavs advance to the gates of Thessaloniki and the Peloponnese.

title: 586

text: Avar and Slavic tribes conquer Byzantine territories in the Balkans, occupying lands as far south as the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece (approximate date).

title: 700

section: Health & Medicine

text: Bubonic plague in Asia Minor kills 1/3 of the population, and subsequently sweeps through the Peloponnese (Balkan Peninsula) (approximate date).

title: 745

text: A Byzantine expeditionary force under Staurakios, chief minister (logothete), begins a campaign against the communities (Sclaviniae) of Greece. Setting out from Constantinople, the imperial army follows the Thracian coast into Macedonia, and then south into Thessaly, Central Greece and the Peloponnese. Staurakios restores a measure of Byzantine authority over these areas, and collects booty and tribute from the locals.

title: 783

text: Siege of Patras: Local Slavic tribes of the Peloponnese lay siege to the city of Patras (modern Greece), with aid from an Arab fleet. A Byzantine relief army under Skleros, military governor (strategos) from Corinth, is sent and retakes the city. The captured Slavs in Patras are made slaves, and a church is dedicated to St. Andrew.

title: 805

text: Siege of Patras: This marks the end of independent rule by the South Slavs in the Peloponnese (or 805).

title: 807

text: An Abbasid fleet under Humayd ibn Ma'yuf al-Hajuri raids the Peloponnese, Rhodes and Myra.

title: 807

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Empire and Byzantine Empire

text: A Sicilian fleet (some 70 ships) under George of Antioch attacks Corfu, the island surrenders and welcomes the Normans as their liberators. Leaving a garrison of 1,000 men, George sails to the Peloponnesus. He pillages the cities of Corinth, Athens and Thebes. King Roger II begins an 11-year war between Sicily and the Byzantine Empire.

title: 1147

date: June

text: June – Treaty of Sapienza: The Republic of Venice recognizes the possession of the Peloponnese by Geoffrey I of Villehardouin and keeps only the fortresses of Modon and Coron. Venice also acquires an exemption of her merchants from all tariffs, and the right to establish "a church, a market and a court" in every city of Achaea.

title: 1209

date: December

text: December – William of Villehardouin, Latin ruler of the Principality of Achaea, captures Monemvasia – last remaining Byzantine outpost on the Peloponnese.

title: 1248

text: Winter – William of Villehardouin tours the Peloponnese and selects sites for new fortifications such as Grand Magne and Leuktron. At Mystras (ancient Sparta), he builds a fortress and a palace.

title: 1249

text: Summer – Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (some 3,500 men) led by his half-brother, Constantine Palaiologos, to the Peloponnese in southern Greece. The army is transported to Monemvasia on Genoese ships, while a small Byzantine fleet is sent to harass the Latin island holdings in Euboea and the Cyclades. After arriving at Monemvasia, Constantine lays siege to Sparta, while the Byzantine fleet seizes the southern coast of Laconia.

title: 1263

text: May 5 – Charles the Lame, King of Naples, accuses Philip I of Piedmont and Isabella of Villehardouin of disloyalty, and deprives them of the right to rule the Principality of Achaea (located in southern Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula). King Charles awards Achaea to his son, Philip I, Prince of Taranto.

title: 1306

section: Events › April – June

date: February 22

text: February 22 – Battle of Picotin: Catalan forces led by Prince Ferdinand of Majorca, claimant to the Principality of Achaea, defeat the army of Princess Matilda of Hainaut, on the Peloponnese. During the battle, the Catalans kill 500 Burgundians and 700 native troops. The remnants of the Princess's army withdraw in haste, pursued by the Catalan cavalry; before they turn back to loot the abandoned Achaean camp.

title: 1316

section: Events › January – March

text: Autumn – Byzantine forces under Andronikos Asen capture the Latin castles of Akova and Karytaina. They secure control over Arcadia and Cynuria in the Peloponnese.

title: 1320

section: Events › Date unknown

date: October 7

text: October 7 – Battle of Modon: The Genoese fleet under Jean Le Maingre (Marshal Boucicaut) is defeated by the Republic of Venice, at Modon in the Peloponnese.

title: 1403

date: April 12

text: April 12 – Centurione II Zaccaria buys the Principality of Achaea, located on the Peloponnese peninsula in modern-day Greece, from King Ladislaus of Naples.

title: 1404

date: May 22

text: May 22 – Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: After a two-day battle, Turakhan Beg, Ottoman governor of Thessaly, breaks through the Hexamilion wall, and ravages the Peloponnese Peninsula in Greece.

title: 1423

text: Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: The Ottoman governor of Thessaly Turahan Bey breaks through the Hexamilion wall for the second time, and ravages the Peloponnese Peninsula.

title: 1431

text: December 10 – After hesitating for several weeks, Sultan Murad II, of the Ottoman Empire, destroys the Hexamilion wall, in an assault that includes cannons. Murad and the Ottoman governor of Thessaly, Turakhan Beg, ravage the Peloponnese Peninsula at will, with the Sultan devastating the northern shore, while Glarentza and Turakhan raid in the interior. The Despotate of the Morea is turned into an Ottoman vassal state.

title: 1446

text: October – Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: The Ottoman governor of Thessaly, Turakhan Beg, breaks through the Hexamilion wall for the fourth time, and ravages the Peloponnese Peninsula to prevent the Byzantine Despotate of the Morea from assisting Constantinople, during the final Ottoman siege of the imperial capital.

title: 1452

text: April 25 – The Morean War begins as the Republic of Venice declares war on the Ottoman Empire for control of the Peloponnese area of Greece, a peninsula which includes Corinth and Sparta and has been referred to by the Ottomans as Morea.

title: 1684

text: July 20 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–18): The fall of Nauplion, the capital of the Venetian "Kingdom of the Morea", seals the fate of the Peloponnese Peninsula, which is soon completely retaken by the Ottomans.

title: 1715

text: June 14 – At least 82 people die and 500 are reported missing after a boat carrying migrants capsizes off the coast of the Peloponnese.

title: 2023


slug: peloponnesus

label: Peloponnesus

year_label: 455 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Athens, under Athenian general Tolmides, sends 100 ships around the Peloponnesus and they set fire to the Spartan naval base at Gythion. As a result, Athens gains the agreement of the Achaean cities to join the Delian League. Athenian forces then go on to attack the Spartan allies on the Corinthian Gulf. Athens is now able to confine Sparta to the southern Peloponnesus.

title: 455 BC

year_label: 430 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The army of Sparta loots Attica for a second time, but Pericles is not daunted and refuses to revise his initial strategy. Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again leads a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnesus, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him.

title: 430 BC

year_label: 428 BCE

text: The chief city of Lesbos, Mytilene, revolts against Athenian rule. The Spartan admiral, Alcidas, leads 40 Peloponnesian alliance ships with the aim of assisting the inhabitants of Mytilene. However, the rebellion by Mytilene is crushed before his forces can arrive.

title: 428 BC

year_label: 425 BCE

text: Demosthenes captures and fortifies the port of Pylos in the Peloponnesus, giving Athens a strong base close to Sparta. Meanwhile, a Spartan army, commanded by Brasidas, lands on the nearby island of Sphacteria, but is repulsed by the Athenians. An Athenian fleet summoned by Demosthenes bottles up the Spartan navy in Navarino Bay.

title: 425 BC

year_label: 367 BCE

text: The Theban general, Epaminondas, again invades the Peloponnesus, but this time achieves little beyond winning Sicyon over to an alliance with Thebes. When he returns to Thebes, he is again put on trial, and again acquitted.

title: 367 BC

year_label: 366 BCE

text: Theban leader, Epaminondas, returns to the Peloponnesus for a third time, seeking to secure the allegiance of the states of Achaea. Although no army dares to challenge him in the field, the democratic governments he establishes there are short-lived, as pro-Spartan aristocrats soon return to the cities, reestablish the oligarchies, and bind their cities ever more closely to Sparta.

title: 366 BC

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Athenian statesman, Demosthenes, travels to Peloponnesus, in order to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts are generally unsuccessful. Most of the Peloponnesians see Philip II as the guarantor of their freedom, so they send a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities. In response to these complaints, Demosthenes delivers the Second Philippic, which is a vehement attack against Philip II.

title: 344 BC

year_label: 338 BCE

text: Athens arranges an alliance with Euboea, Megara, Achaea, Corinth, Acarnania and some other states in the Peloponnesus. However, the most desirable ally for Athens is Thebes. Therefore, the Athenian leader, Demosthenes, goes to the Boeotian city and secures an alliance with Thebes despite the efforts of a Macedonian deputation to persuade Thebes to join with Macedonia. In return, Athens agrees to Thebes controlling Boeotia, Thebes being in command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athens paying two thirds of the campaign's cost.

title: 338 BC

section: Events › By place › Macedonia

year_label: 331 BCE

text: While Alexander is fighting in Asia, Agis III of Sparta, profiting from the Macedonian king's absence from Greece, leads some of the Greek cities in a revolt. With Persian money and 8,000 Greek mercenaries, he holds Crete against Macedonian forces. In the Peloponnesus he routs a force under the Macedonian general Coragus and, although Athens stays neutral, he is joined by Elis, Achaea (except Pellene) and Arcadia, with the exception of Megalopolis, the staunchly anti-Spartan capital of Arcadia, which Agis III's forces besiege.

title: 331 BC

year_label: 317 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

text: While Cassander is occupied in the Peloponnesus, Olympias leads an army into Macedonia. She is initially successful, defeating the army of King Philip III Arrhidaeus and capturing King Philip and his wife, Eurydice, as well as Cassander's brother, Nicanor. She then has them murdered.

title: 317 BC

section: Events › By place › Macedonian Empire

year_label: 316 BCE

text: Cassander returns from the Peloponnesus and defeats Macedonia's regent Polyperchon in battle. Cassander blockades Olympias, mother of the late Alexander the Great, in Pydna, where she surrenders. Cassander takes Roxana and her son Alexander IV of Macedon into his custody.

title: 316 BC

year_label: 315 BCE

text: Polyperchon is appointed general of the Peloponnesus

title: 315 BC

text: Alexander (son of Polyperchon) sails to Antigonus in Asia. They make a pact of friendship and, by order of Antigonus, Alexander sails back to the Peloponnesus

title: 315 BC

text: Antigonus sends Telesphorus to the Peloponnesus to free the cities.

title: 313 BC

section: Events › By place › Syria

year_label: 309 BCE

text: Antigonus attempts to renew his alliance with the Macedonian general and former regent Polyperchon, who still controls part of the Peloponnesus. He sends Heracles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, to Polyperchon to be treated as a pretender to the throne of Macedonia.

title: 309 BC

year_label: 280 BCE

section: Economy & Finance

text: The Achaean League is reformed by twelve towns in the northern Peloponnesus and will later grow to include non-Achaean cities. It has two generals, a federal council with proportional representation of members and an annual assembly of all free citizens. The League achieves a common coinage and foreign policy and the member cities pool their armed forces.

title: 280 BC

year_label: 220 BCE

text: Together with fellow Illyrian, Scerdilaidas, Demetrius of Pharos attacks Illyrian cities under Roman protection and leads a piratical squadron into Greek waters. They unsuccessfully attack Pylos, an Achaean town on the Messenian coast, in the Peloponnesus of Greece.

title: 220 BC


slug: pelusium

label: Pelusium

description: ancient Egyptian archaeological site

year_label: 343 BCE

text: The King of Persia, Artaxerxes III, personally leads the Persian forces invading Egypt. The Persians are keen to access Egypt's gold and corn supplies. The town of Pelusium in the Nile Delta puts up resistance, but Pharaoh Nectanebo II is forced to retreat to Memphis. As the situation deteriorates, Nectanebo II leaves for exile in Nubia. His departure marks the end of the 30th Dynasty, the last native house to rule Egypt.

title: 343 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian Empire

year_label: 202 BCE

text: Agathocles rule provokes Tlepolemus, the governor of Pelusium (Egypt's eastern frontier city), into action. Tlepolemus marches on Alexandria, where his supporters rouse a mob, compelling Agathocles to resign.

title: 202 BC

section: Events › By place › Egypt

year_label: 170 BCE

text: Antiochus IV decides to let Ptolemy VI continue as king of Egypt, but as his puppet. He does this to minimise any reaction from Rome towards his invasion. Antiochus IV then departs Egypt to deal with disturbances in Palestine, but he safeguards his access to Egypt with a strong garrison in Pelusium.

title: 170 BC

year_label: 30 BCE

text: Summer – Cornelius Gallus lands in Cyrene and occupies Paraetonium. Mark Antony storms the city walls and blockades the harbour, then retreats with his army (7 legions) to Egypt and receives the news that Pelusium has opened its gates to Octavian without resistance.

title: 30 BC

text: Plague of Justinian: Bubonic plague appears suddenly in the Egyptian port of Pelusium, spreading to Alexandria and, the following year, to Constantinople. This is the beginning of a 200-year-long pandemic that will devastate Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

title: 541

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Arab–Byzantine War: The Rashidun army (4,000 men), under the command of 'Amr ibn al-'As, invades Byzantine Egypt. They capture the strategic town of Pelusium (Nile Delta) after a two-month siege. Arab reinforcements led by Zubayr ibn al-Awwam are sent from Medina to assist Amr's army. The losses incurred by the Muslims are ameliorated by Sinai Bedouins, tribes of Rashida and Lakhm; they join the invaders in conquering Egypt.

title: 639

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

section: Religion & Belief

text: Ḥawthara ibn Suhayl takes the Coptic patriarch, Michael I, hostage to Rosetta, and threatenes to have him killed if the Egyptian rebels did not lay down their arms. The Egyptians attacked Rosetta and sacked it, massacring its Arab inhabitants. There was an offensive as far as Pelusium against an Umayyad army. In response, Marwān ordered the pillaging and razing of Egyptian villages and monasteries throughout the Delta. His campaign was a failure and in 750 he was overthrown in the Abbasid Revolution.

title: 749

text: The Crusaders led by King Baldwin I of Jerusalem raid Pelusium in Egypt and burn the city to the ground. Baldwin marches back to Palestine and strengthens the fortifications of the southern frontier.

title: 1117

section: Events › By place › Levant