slug: toledo-spain

label: Toledo, Spain

description: municipality in central Spain

text: Toledo becomes the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom that controls the Iberian Peninsula. King Theudis expands Visigoth rule in the southern regions (Hispania Baetica).

title: 534

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: The Visigoths under King Liuvigild establish the capital of their kingdom in Toledo, located in central Spain (approximate date).

title: 576

section: Religion & Belief

text: King Liuvigild calls for an Arian synod in Toledo (central Spain), which modifies several doctrines; he tries to unify the Christians within the Visigothic Kingdom.

title: 580

section: Conflict & Security

text: King Liuvigild lays siege to Seville (Southern Spain), and forms an alliance with the Byzantines. He summons his rebellious son Hermenegild back to Toledo, and forces him to abandon the Chalcedonian Faith.

title: 583

section: Deaths

date: April 21

text: April 21 – King Liuvigild dies at Toledo after an 18-year reign, and is succeeded by his second son Reccared I.

title: 586

text: Liuva II, age 18, succeeds his father Reccared I as king of the Visigoths. Reccared dies a natural death at the capital in Toledo after a 15-year reign.

title: 601

text: Spring – Witteric, counting on the support of the nobles, attacks the royal palace in Toledo, and overthrows King Liuva II. He cuts off his right hand, and has him executed. Witteric becomes the new king of the Visigoths.

title: 603

text: King Witteric is assassinated during a banquet at Toledo, by a faction of Catholic nobles. He is succeeded by Gundemar, duke of Narbonne, who becomes king of the Visigoths in Hispania.

title: 610

date: April 30

text: April 30 – Chindasuinth, a Gothic warlord (already 79 years old), commences a rebellion and deposes King Tulga in Toledo, Spain. He is proclaimed king by the Visigothic nobility and anointed by the bishops. Tulga is tonsured and sent out to live his days in a monastery.

title: 642

text: King Recceswinth draws up the Liber Judiciorum at Toledo, a Visigothic code based on Roman law, that establishes equality between Goths and Hispano-Romans without regard to racial or cultural differences.

title: 654

date: July 19

text: July 19 – Battle of Guadalete: The Muslim Arabs defeat the Visigothic army (33,000 men) under King Roderick, who dies in battle. The Visigoth capital of Toledo opens its city gates; Tariq ibn Ziyad sends Moorish detachments to capture the cities of Córdoba and Seville (Andalusia).

title: AD 711

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

date: November

text: November – Al-Hakam I, Umayyad emir of Córdoba, reasserts his control over the city of Toledo, autonomous since 797. To this effect Al-Hakam has over 72 nobles (accounts talk of 5,000) massacred at a banquet, crucified and displayed along the banks of the Guadalquivir River (modern Spain), in what comes to be known as the "Day of the Trench".

title: 806

text: Al-Andalus: The city of Toledo (modern Spain) rises up for a second time against Umayyad rule, due to ethnic tensions over two years.

title: 873

text: The city of Toledo rises against the Umayyad Dynasty, in Al-Andalus (modern Spain).

title: 887

section: Events › By place › Al-Andalus

text: King Alfonso III repopulates the city of Zamora with Mozarabs (Iberian Christians who have lived under Moorish rule) from Toledo in Al-Andalus (modern Spain).

title: 893

date: May 25

text: May 25 – King Alfonso VI of León and Castile ("the Brave") recaptures Toledo from the Moors, and occupies other cities such as Madrid and Talavera (including the castle of Aledo). Alfonso moves his capital to Toledo, and consolidates his power between Sistema Central and the Tagus River, from where he launches more attacks against the taifas of Córdoba, Seville, Badajoz and Granada (modern Spain).

title: 1085

text: The Almoravid army, led by Ali ibn Yusuf, fails to reconquer Toledo (lost in 1085).

title: 1109

text: Raymond of Fitero, Spanish monk and abbot, pledges to defend the fortress of Calatrava (guarding the roads to Córdoba and Toledo) from incoming Muslim raiders. It is the founding moment of the Order of Calatrava, the spearhead of the Iberian armies during the Reconquista.

title: 1158

date: April 25

text: April 25 – King Sancho IV of Castile ("the Brave") dies of a fatal illness (possibly tuberculosis), after a 11-year reign at Toledo. He is succeeded by his 9-year-old son Ferdinand IV ("the Summoned") as ruler of Castile and León. In the Cortes at Valladolid, Henry of Castile the Senator is appointed guardian of Ferdinand, while Queen María de Molina becomes his regent. During the summer, Ferdinand is betrothed to the 5-year-old Princess Constance of Portugal. Hostilities between Castile and King Denis of Portugal ("the Poet King") are ended by a peace agreement.

title: 1295

date: July 13

text: July 13 – King Ferdinand IV of Castile leaves his palace at Ávila for the last time, placing his son Prince Alfonso in charge, and arrives in Toledo before proceeding to the province of Jaén to join his younger brother.

title: 1312

section: Events › July – September

date: October 9

text: October 9 – King Juan, ruler of the Crown of Castile and the Kingdom of León, is fatally injured when he is thrown from his horse while he is participating in an exhibition of horsemanship before a crowd at Alcalá de Henares. The Archbishop of Toledo, Pedro Tenorio, conceals the news of King Juan's death from the public until a regency council can be created for the King's 11-year-old son, Prince Enrique of Trastámara, who is proclaimed as King Enrique III.

title: 1390

section: Events › October–December

date: June 6

text: June 6 – Massacre of 1391: Anti-Jewish pogroms erupt in Seville, Spain. Many thousands of Jews are massacred, and the violence spreads throughout Spain and Portugal, especially to Toledo, Barcelona and Mallorca. This event marks a turning-point in the history of the Spanish Jews, with most of the survivors leaving the Iberian Peninsula or being forced to convert.

title: 1391

section: Events › April–June

date: April 16

text: April 16 – Revolt of the Comuneros: Citizens of Toledo, Castile opposed to the rule of the Flemish-born Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, rise up when the royal government attempts to unseat radical city councilors.

title: 1520

date: October 25

text: October 25 – The Revolt of the Comuneros, an uprising by citizens of the Kingdom of Castile against the rule of Spain's King Carlos I, ends as the comuneros surrender Toledo.

title: 1521


slug: tonga

label: Tonga

description: sovereign state in Oceania, situated on an archipelago

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: In Tonga, in or around 1470, the Tuʻi Tonga Dynasty cedes its temporal powers to the Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua Dynasty, which will remain prominent until about 1600.

title: 1470

section: Events › Date unknown

date: January 21

text: January 21 – Abel Tasman sights the island of Tonga.

title: 1643

section: Events › January–March

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Battle of Kaba: The Kingdom of Tonga in the islands of the southwest Pacific Ocean (Polynesia, Melanesia / Oceania), intervenes in the war between the self-proclaimed Tui Viti (King) of the island of Fiji, Cakobau, and his rivals the Confederation of Rewa. It results in Rewa's defeat and the tenuous unification of Fiji under Cakobau.

title: 1855

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: May 18

text: May 18 – The United Kingdom proclaims a protectorate over Tonga.

title: 1900

section: Events › May

date: January 19

text: January 19 – The Libertarian enclave Minerva on a platform in the South Pacific, sponsored by the Phoenix Foundation, declares independence. Soon neighboring Tonga annexes the area and dismantles the platform.

title: 1972

section: Events › January

date: September 14

text: September 14 – Kiribati, Nauru and Tonga join the United Nations.

title: 1999

section: Events › September

section: Technology & Infrastructure

date: May 29

text: May 29 – In Tonga, the Mata ʻo e Laʻa Solar Facility is officially opened by King Tupou VI.

title: 2015

section: Climate & Environment

date: January 15

text: January 15 – A large eruption of Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai, a submarine volcano in Tonga, triggers tsunami warnings in Australia, Canada, Chile, Fiji, Japan, New Zealand, Samoa, and the United States.

title: 2022


slug: torun

label: Toruń

description: city in north-central Poland

date: November 19

text: November 19 – In Germany, the Kölner Konföderation is founded by eight German members of the Hanseatic League (Lübeck, Rostock, Stralsund, Wismar, Kulm and Thorn, and five non-League Dutch cities (Amsterdam, Brielle, Harderwijk,Elbing and Kampen) to fight against the Kingdom of Denmark, whose ruler King Valdemar IV, has been seizing land to expand the territory owned by the Danish crown.

title: 1367

date: February 1

text: February 1 – The First Peace of Thorn is signed at Thorn (modern-day Torun in Poland) in the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights, ending the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The Knights cede the region of Dobrzyń Land to the Kingdom of Poland. Thus, the Teutonic Order suffered virtually no territorial losses – a great diplomatic achievement after the crushing defeat in the Battle of Grunwald the previous year.

title: 1411

date: February 21

text: February 21 – The Prussian Confederation is proposed as an opposition to the Teutonic Knights at a meeting in Elbing by nobles from the cities of Culm, Elbing, Thorn, Danzig, Braunsberg, Königsberg, and Kneiphof. The delegates agree to hold a larger meeting on March 14 at Marienwerder.

title: 1440

section: Religion & Belief

date: February 4

text: February 4 – The cause of the Thirteen Years' War is set when the Secret Council of the Prussian Confederation sends a formal act of disobedience to the Grand Master, and the citizens of Toruń rebel against the Teutonic Knights, beginning the conflict.

title: 1454

date: May 28

text: May 28 – King Casimir IV of Poland receives an oath of allegiance from the citizens of Toruń and other cities in the Chelmno area.

title: 1454

date: July 29

text: July 29 – A treaty is signed at Toruń between the Kingdom of Poland and mercenaries led by Oldrzych Czerwonka with Poland purchasing the 21 fortresses of Czerwonka's people in exchange for 463,794 florins (1.62 million grams or 58,000 ounces of gold).

title: 1456

section: Events › July–September

date: December 11

text: December 11 – At Toruń, the members of the Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland vote to approve a war against the Teutonic Knights and to assess new taxes to recruit mercenary troops.

title: 1519

date: July 2

text: July 2 – The Siege of Toruń begins in Poland as troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and of Austria seek to recapture the city of Toruń from a garrison of the Swedish Army. Within six months, the Swedish occupiers surrender.

title: 1658

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: December 7

text: December 7 – In the aftermath of an attack against Jesuit Catholics led by the Lutheran mayor of the Prussian city of Thorn (modern-day Toruń, Poland), ten Lutheran officials (including mayor Johann Gottfried Rösner) are executed in the town square. Rösner and seven others are decapitated by an axe, while two others are hanged, drawn and quartered for blasphemy.

title: 1724


slug: totila

label: Totila

description: king of the Ostrogoths and King of Italy (541–552)

section: Conflict & Security

text: Ildibad succeeds Vitiges as king of the Ostrogoths, and installs his nephew Totila as commander of the Gothic army. He recaptures Venetia and Liguria in Northern Italy.

title: 540

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

section: Deaths

text: Autumn – Totila is elected king by the Ostrogothic nobles after the death of his uncle Ildibad. He wins the support of the lower classes by liberating slaves and distributing land to the peasants.

title: 541

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Spring – Battle of Faventia: King Totila scatters the Byzantine forces near Faventia (modern Faenza) with 5,000 men, beginning the resurgence of Gothic resistance to the reconquest of Italy.

title: 542

text: Spring – Siege of Naples (542–543): The Byzantine garrison (1,000 men) in Naples surrenders to the Ostrogoths, pressed by famine and demoralized by the failure of two relief efforts. The defenders are well treated by King Totila, and the garrison is allowed safe departure, but the city walls are partly razed.

title: 543

text: Belisarius defeats the Gothic army under King Totila, who unsuccessfully besieges the city of Otranto (southern Italy). After their retreat, the Byzantines march towards the city of Rome.

title: 544

section: Events › By place › The Mediterranean World, Europe, and the Middle East

text: Gothic War: King Totila establishes his military base at Tivoli (Central Italy), and prepares a campaign to reconquer the region of Latium.

title: 545

date: December 17

text: December 17 – Sack of Rome: After almost a year's siege, the capture of a grain fleet sent by the exiled Pope Vigilius near the mouth of the Tiber, and failure of troops of the Byzantine Empire under Belisarius to relieve the city, the Ostrogoths under King Totila plunder Rome and destroy its fortifications. He then withdraws to Apulia (Southern Italy).

title: 546

text: Siege of Rome: The Ostrogoths under Totila besiege Rome for the third time, after Belisarius has returned to Constantinople. He offers a peace agreement, but this is rejected by Emperor Justinian I.

title: 549

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Gothic War: The Ostrogoths under king Totila recapture Rome after a long siege, by bribing the Isaurian garrison.

title: 550

text: Gothic War: Narses arrives in Venetia and discovers that a powerful Gothic-Frank army (50,000 men), under joint command of the kings Totila and Theudebald, has blocked the principal route to the Po Valley. Not wishing to engage such a formidable force and confident that the Franks would avoid a direct confrontation, Narses skirts the lagoons along the Adriatic shore, by using vessels to leapfrog his army from point to point along the coast. In this way he arrives at the capital Ravenna without encountering any opposition. He attacks and crushes a small Gothic force at Ariminum (modern Rimini).

title: 551

date: July 1

text: July 1 – Totila, king of the Ostrogoths

title: 552


slug: toulouse

label: Toulouse

description: French commune and city in Haute-Garonne, Occitania

year_label: 107 BCE

text: In the course of the migration of the Cimbrians and Teutons, a Germanic-Celtic confederation including the Helvetic tribes of the Tigurinians and Tougenians, under the leadership of Divico, ambush and defeat the Roman legions under Lucius Cassius Longinus, Lucius Caesoninus and Gaius Popillius Laenas at the Battle of Burdigala on the Garonne. As a result, the town of Tolosa, populated by the Volcae, revolts against the Roman Empire.

title: 107 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

text: The Visigoths, led by King Ataulf, conquer the towns of Toulouse and Bordeaux by force of arms. After a successful siege of Valence, he captures the usurper Jovinus and his brother Sebastianus. In Narbonne they are executed and their heads are sent to Honorius' court at Ravenna.

title: 413

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: The Visigoths are granted Aquitaine, and become allies (foederati) of the Western Roman Empire. King Wallia establishes his capital at Toulouse.

title: 417

text: Gothic War (436-439): Litorius, Roman general (Magister militum per Gallias), lays siege to Toulouse. During the decisive battle before the walls he suffers a severe defeat and is killed, and only the heavy loss of Visigoths makes King Theodoric I decide to agree to a provisional restoration of the status quo.

title: 439

section: Health & Medicine

text: Valentinian III forms a marriage proposal for his eldest daughter Eudocia and Genseric's son Huneric. He is already married to a Visigoth princess, and Genseric decides to free him of his obligations by accusing her of trying to poison him. He leaves her mutilated - her ears and nose are cut off - and sends her back to her father Theodoric I, in Toulouse (Gaul).

title: AD 442

text: Thorismund succeeds his father Theodoric I as king of the Visigoths. He is crowned in the capital at Toulouse, and extends the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania.

title: 451

text: Maximus appoints Avitus, most trusted general, to the rank of magister militum and sends him on an embassy to Toulouse, to gain the support of the Visigoths. He elevates his son Palladius to Caesar and has him marry Eudocia, eldest daughter of Valentinian III.

title: 455

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Emperor Majorian gathers an expeditionary force (Alans and other barbarians) in Liguria, and enters Aquitaine after a long march, where he visits King Theodoric II at Toulouse.

title: 460

date: December 28

text: December 28 – The Visigoth king Euric dies and is succeeded by his son Alaric II. Euric has built a rampart to protect the city of Carcassonne southeast of Toulouse, on a bend of the Aude River.

title: 484

text: Battle of Vouillé: A Frankish army under command of Clovis I invades the Visigothic Kingdom, and defeats King Alaric II near Poitiers. The Visigoths refuse to be enslaved, and retreat to Septimania (Southern Gaul). Clovis annexes Aquitania, and captures Toulouse.

title: 507

text: Gundoald, illegitimate son of Clotaire I, arrives with the financial support of Constantinople in southern Gaul. He claims as usurper king the cities Poitiers and Toulouse, part of the Frankish Kingdom (approximate date).

title: 582

text: Charibert II, half-brother of Dagobert I, becomes king of Aquitaine (Southern France), and establishes his capital at Toulouse. Charibert's realm also includes Agen, Cahors, and Périgueux.

title: 629

text: Felix, patrician of Toulouse, assumes the titles of Duke of Vasconia and Aquitaine. He is formally a vassal of the Franks, but rules "de facto" independently.

title: 660

text: Umayyad conquest of Gaul (first major Muslim attack upon Visigothic Septimania, in southern France): Governor Al-Samh takes or re-takes Narbonne (Arbouna for the Arabs), before raiding the Toulouse area. Many town defenders and inhabitants are killed in the aftermath by the Umayyad forces.

title: 719

date: June 9

text: June 9 – Battle of Toulouse: After besieging Toulouse for three months, Muslim forces under governor (wali) Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani are defeated by Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, preventing the extension of Umayyad control over Gaul.

title: 721

text: Frankish King Pepin III ("the Short") begins his expedition to Septimania and Aquitaine. He conquers the cities of Carcassonne, Toulouse, Rodez and Albi. Duke Waifer of Aquitaine confiscates the Church lands, and plunders Burgundy. Pepin invades Aquitanian-held Berry and the Auvergne, capturing the fortresses of Bourbon and Clermont. Waifer's Basque troops are defeated by the Franks, and deported into northern France with their children and wives.

title: 760

text: Viking raiders ascend the River Garonne as far as the city of Toulouse, and pillage the lands of Septimania. Part of the marauding Vikings invades Galicia (Northern Spain), where some perish in a storm at sea. After being defeated in Corunna, the Scandinavian raiders sack the Umayyad cities of Seville (see below), Niebla, Beja, and Lisbon.

title: 844

text: Summer – Viking raiders sack the cities of Paris, Cologne, Aachen, Worms and Toulouse.

title: 861

text: Pepin II joins the Vikings in an attack on Toulouse. He is captured while besieging the Frankish city. Pepin is deposed as king of Aquitaine, and imprisoned in Senlis.

title: 864

text: Spring – Albigensian Crusade: Crusader forces led by Simon de Montfort conquer Toulouse and besiege Lavaur in southern France. On May 3, the city is retaken; on orders of Montfort the senior knights are hanged and some 400 Cathars are burned alive.

title: 1211

date: January 8

text: January 8 – Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, is elected lord of Languedoc in a council at Montpellier (Southern France), after his campaign against the Cathar heretics during the Albigensian Crusade. The Crusaders capture Château de Castelnaud-la-Chapelle and enter Toulouse; the town pays an indemnity of 30,000 marks and is gifted to Montfort.

title: 1215

section: Events › By continent › Europe

date: April 12

text: April 12 – Treaty of Paris: Count Raymond VII is forced to sign a peace treaty (also known as the "Treaty of Meaux"). This brings the Albigensian Crusade to an end. Raymond regains his feudal rights but has to swear his allegiance to King Louis IX (the Saint). The fortifications, such as these of Avignon and Toulouse, are dismantled.

title: 1229

section: Culture & Society

date: March 20

text: March 20 (Easter Sunday) – Shepherds' Crusade (Le Pastoureaux): In France, a large group of common people band together in Normandy to begin a crusade, after a teenage shepherd says he was visited by the Holy Spirit. They march south to Aquitaine, attacking castles, royal officials, priests and lepers along the way. Jewish communes are attacked at Saintes, Cahors, Verdun-sur-Garonne, Albi and Toulouse. When they finally cross into Spain, Aragonese forces under Prince Alfonso halt their advance.

title: 1320

section: Events › January – March

section: Science & Discovery

text: December 11 – Supersonic airliner Concorde is unveiled in Toulouse, France.

title: 1967

section: Events › December

date: April 27

text: April 27 – The Superjumbo jet aircraft Airbus A380 makes its first flight from Toulouse.

title: 2005

section: Events › April


slug: toungoo-dynasty

label: Toungoo dynasty

description: ruling dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from the mid-16th century to 1752

date: April 17

text: April 17 – Thawun Gyi settles at Taungoo (modern-day Myanmar), and becomes the first ruler of the Toungoo dynasty (until 1317).

title: 1279

section: Events › By place › Asia

date: June 23

text: June 23 – Thawun Gyi, Burmese founder and ruler of Toungoo (b. 1258)

title: 1317

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: October 16

text: October 16 – Mingyi Nyo declares independence from the Ava Kingdom in upper Burma, by establishing the Toungoo dynasty.

title: 1510

section: Events › October–December

date: November 24

text: November 24 – Tabinshwehti succeeds his father Mingyi Nyo as king of the Toungoo dynasty, following the latter's death.

title: 1530

text: December 7 (11 waxing of Natdaw 905 ME) – The land and naval forces of the Confederation of Shan States (consisting of the principalities of Mohnyin, Mogaung, Bhamo, Momeik and Kale), led by Prince Sawlon of Mohnyin and King Hkonmaing, depart from the Shan capital, Awa, to start an invasion of the Toungoo Empire in upper Myanmar. The invaders easily overrun Toungoo and its capital at Prome a week later.

title: 1543

date: January 28

text: January 28 – Bayinnaung, King of Burma and head of the Toungoo dynasty, conquers two the Shan States, Möng Mit and Hsipaw in what is now northern Myanmar. The event is later commemorated with an inscription on the Shwezigon Pagoda Bell.

title: 1557

section: Events › January–March

date: March 11

text: March 11 – The Burmese conquest of the Shan States continues as the capital of the Mongkawng state, Mong Kawng, falls to the Toungoo dynasty invaders, five days after the March 6 surrender of the town of Mong Yang. The event is later commemorated on the Shwezigon Pagoda Bell.

title: 1557

date: November 25

text: November 25 – The army of Burma, under the command of King Bayinnaung conquers Chiang Mai, capital of the Siamese Kingdom of Lan Na, and departs on November 30.

title: 1565

date: October 13

text: October 13 – (5th waxing of Tazaungmon 952 ME) – In what is now Myanmar, King Nanda Bayin of Burma sends a 10,000-man army, led by the Viceroy Thado Dhamma Yaza III of Prome, and General Natshinnaung to suppress a rebellion in the Shan state of Mogaung.

title: 1590

date: April 30

text: April 30 – The Kingdom of Lan Na (in modern-day northern Thailand) is invaded by 17,000 troops commanded by King Anaukpetlun of Burma (modern Myanmar). Lan Na's King Thado Kyaw is unsuccessful in getting assistance from the Kingdom of Siam, and turns to the Kingdom of Lan Xang (modern Laos), which provides assistance.

title: 1614

section: Events › April–June

date: June 3

text: June 3 – Pye Min, younger brother of King Pindale Min of Burma, leads a bloody coup d'etat and ascends the throne. Pindale Min and his family (including his primary wife, a son and a grandson) are drowned in the Chindwin River. Pye Min reigns until 1672.

title: 1661

date: February 10

text: February 10 – The army of the Kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) captures Chiang Mai from the Kingdom of Burma (now Myanmar), using it as a base for launching a larger attack on the Burmese coast in November.

title: 1663

date: May 4

text: May 4 – At the imperial capital at Inwa, Sanay Min of the Toungoo dynasty becomes the new King of Burma upon the death of his father, Minye Kyawhtin.

title: 1698


slug: tournai

label: Tournai

description: city in Wallonia, Belgium

section: Conflict & Security

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Attila's forces invade Gaul and sack Metz. The major cities of Strasbourg, Worms, Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Reims, Tournai, Cambrai, Amiens and Beauvais are destroyed by the Huns.

title: 451

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Childeric I succeeds his father Merovech as king of the Salian Franks. He establishes his capital at Tournai (modern Belgium) and becomes a foederatus (pl. foederati) of the Western Roman Empire.

title: 458

section: Deaths

text: King Childeric I dies at Tournai after a 24-year reign. He is succeeded by his 15-year-old son Clovis, who becomes ruler of the Salian Franks in the province Gallia Belgica (modern Belgium) until his death in 511.

title: 481

text: The Franks under Sigibert I pursue his half brother Chilperic I, and conquer the cities Poitiers and Tournai. While he is proclaimed new king of Neustria by the nobles, Sigibert is assassinated at Vitry-en-Artois (Northern Gaul) by hirelings of Fredegund.

title: 575

section: Religion & Belief

text: The Hungarians plunder the regions of Hesbaye and Carbonaria (modern Belgium). They plunder and burn the monastery of Saint Lambert from Hainaut, the monastery of Moorsel, sack the cities of Gembloux and Tournai.

title: 954

date: June

text: June – Otto IV arrives in Flanders with a small army; four German nobles have joined him, but he is soon reinforced by troops of Renaud I, duke of Boulogne, Ferdinand, (jure uxoris) count of Flanders and the mercenaries under William Longespée. On July 26, Philip II arrives at the Flemish town of Tournai with his army (some 7,000 men), while the allied forces encamp 12 kilometers south at the Castle of Mortagne (France).

title: 1214

text: The city of Tournai emits its first recorded life annuity, thus confirming a trend of consolidation of public debts started ten years earlier, in Reims.

title: 1228

section: Events › By topic › Markets

date: June 26

text: June 26 – Louis XIV of France conquers Tournai.

title: 1667

date: July 30

text: July 30 – War of the Spanish Succession: Tournai is captured by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy.

title: 1709

section: Events › July–December


slug: tours

label: Tours

description: city and commune in Indre-et-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire, France

text: King Childebert II attempts to impose taxes on the citizens of Tours; Bishop Gregory successfully opposes this by claiming state immunity instituted by Fredegund.

title: 589

text: Gregory, bishop of Tours, completes his Historia Francorum ("History of the Franks").

title: 592

section: Events › By topic › Literature

date: September

text: September – Charles Martel leads his Frankish army (30,000 men) to Orléans and crosses the Loire River, probably accompanied by Eudes of Aquitaine, with his remaining troops. He makes camp near Tours, probably at Ballan-Miré south-west of the fortress city, in order to protect the abbey of Saint Martin. Charles defeats or forces back Umayyad scouts or an advance guard, between the rivers Indre and Creuse. Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi pulls back to establish a position at the Vienne River.

title: 732

text: Alcuin, Anglo-Saxon monk and scholar, is appointed as abbot by Charlemagne, who puts him in charge of leading Marmoutier Abbey in Tours.

title: 796

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Viking marauders in Gaul sail eastward from Nantes without opposition, and reach Tours. The monasteries at Saint-Florent-le-Vieil and Marmoutier are ravaged.

title: 853

date: August

text: August – Treaty of Compiègne: King Charles the Bald cedes the Cotentin Peninsula to Salomon, duke ('king') of Brittany, after he had sent his son-in-law Pascweten to negotiate a peace. Charles orders the fortification of the cities of Tours, Le Mans and Compiègne.

title: 867

text: Summer – Geoffrey II ("the Hammer"), count of Anjou, captures the city of Tours, and takes control of the county of Touraine.

title: 1044

date: July 6

text: July 6 – King Henry II of England ("Curtmantle") dies at the Château de Chinon, near Tours, after doing homage to Philip II (Augustus), and surrendering the territories around Issoudun in the Centre-Val de Loire. He ends the hostilities against Philip, by agreeing to the peace terms and pays him 20,000 marks in tribute. Henry is succeeded by his son, Richard I ("the Lionheart"), as ruler of England and his remaining territories in France.

title: 1189

section: Events › By place › Continental Europe

section: Crime & Justice

text: September – Geoffrey, illegitimate son of the late King Henry II and half-brother to Richard I and John, lands secretly at Dover. He has been consecrated as the new archbishop of York while in Tours, and on his return is arrested by William de Longchamp. Citing the Winchester treaty, John seeks a meeting with William. Geoffrey is freed, William flees and heads to Dover Castle.

title: 1191

section: Events › By place › England

date: December 25

text: December 25 – Jean II Le Maingre is named as the Marshal of France by King Charles V in a ceremony at the cathedral of St. Martin at Tours. Lalande, Denis, Jean II le Meingre, dit Boucicaut: (1366–1421) - étude d'une biographie héroïque, Genève 1988.

title: 1391

date: December 28

text: December 28 – The Dauphin Charles, crown prince of France, reclaims the city of Tours from the Burgundians after a month-long siege.

title: 1418

date: June 25

text: June 25 – Scottish princess Margaret Stewart marries the future French king Louis XI in Tours.

title: 1436

section: Events › April–July

date: February 5

text: February 5 – King Henry of Navarre, captive in France since 1572 and alive only because he converted to Catholicism, escapes to Tours and formally reverts to the Protestant faith.

title: 1576

date: July 28

text: July 28 – The first Interlingua Congress is held in Tours, France, leading to the foundation of the Union Mundial pro Interlingua.

title: 1955

section: Events › July


slug: tower-of-london

label: Tower of London

description: castle in central London, United Kingdom

text: Approximate date – The White Tower of the Tower of London is begun, under the direction of Gundulf (or Gundulph), bishop of Rochester.

title: 1078

date: February 3

text: February 3 – Ranulf Flambard, bishop of Durham, escapes from the Tower of London and flees to Normandy. There he joins Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, who has just returned from the Crusades.

title: 1101

date: October

text: October – William de Longchamp tries to hold the Tower of London against John's supporters for three days. He surrenders the Tower and escapes to continue his support for Richard I. On October 29, William is captured when disguised as a female merchant. John orders that he be expelled from the country.

title: 1191

date: May 17

text: May 17 – The gates to London are opened by supporters of the rebellious Barons. The houses of Jews are targeted for ransacking and burning. The rebels, under Robert Fitzwalter, call for the English nobles still on the side of King John to join them, and repair the walls. The Tower of London, held by John's supporters, is too well defended to fall into the hands of the rebels.

title: 1215

section: Events › By continent › Europe

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Spring – King Henry III makes large alterations to the Tower of London including new curtain walls, an improved water-filled ditch, and a water gate, so that he can enter the castle directly from the Thames.

title: 1220

section: Events › By place › United Kingdom

date: June 12

text: June 12 – King Henry III of England obtains a papal bull to absolve himself from his oath to maintain the Provisions of Oxford. He hires an army of 300 French knights as a bodyguard and takes up position in the Tower of London. He dismisses the baronial officials (led by Simon de Montfort) who wish the royal power to be modified by the principle of representation. This sets the stage for the Second Barons' War.

title: 1261

section: Events › By place › British Isles

date: November 17

text: November 17 – King Edward I ("Longshanks") raises the penalty for coin clipping from banishment to execution. All Jews are subjected to arrest and search of their homes on suspicion of coin clipping. Some 680 Jews are imprisoned in the Tower of London, with more than 300 subsequently executed. At this time, the Jewish population is believed to have been some 3,000.

title: 1278

section: Culture & Society

text: The Royal Mint is moved into the Tower of London. Mints outside London are reduced, with only a few local and episcopal mints continuing to operate.

title: 1279

date: October 31

text: October 31 – Forces of Edward II of England capture Leeds Castle in Kent after Margaret de Clare, wife of Bartholomew Badlesmere, refuses Queen Isabella admittance in her husband's absence. When the Queen seeks to force an entry, Lady Badlesmere instructs her archers to shoot at Isabella and her party, six of whom are killed. After Edward occupies the castle, Lady Badlesmere becomes the first woman ever to be imprisoned in the Tower of London. She will be freed on November 3, 1322.

title: 1321

section: Events › October – December

date: November 3

text: November 3 – Margaret de Clare, widow of the Contrariant Baron Baldesmere, is freed from incarceration after having spent more than a year as the first woman ever to be imprisoned in the Tower of London (having defied the queen). Margaret retires to a religious life at the convent of the Minorite Sisters (later known as the Poor Clares).

title: 1322

date: September 24

text: September 24 – Invasion of England: Isabella of France and her supporters (including Roger Mortimer) land at the River Orwell in Suffolk. Their aim is to remove King Edward II from his throne and place Prince Edward there as the new ruler. Meanwhile, residing at the Tower of London, Edward tries to raise support in the capital, but instead, there is anarchy in London and mobs killing Edward's officials (including his treasurer, Walter de Stapledon).

title: 1326

section: Events › July – September

date: June 14

text: June 14 – Peasants' Revolt: The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury

title: 1381

date: February 20

text: February 20 – London's Lord Mayor Bembre is hanged in public at Tyburn after having been imprisoned in the Tower of London.

title: 1388

date: September 1

text: September 1 – Richard II, though still nominally the King of England, is imprisoned by Henry Bolingbroke at the Tower of London.

title: 1399

section: Events › July–September

date: July 4

text: July 4 – The cannons of the Tower of London, still in Lancastrian hands, are fired on the city of London, which is mostly in Yorkist. The Tower is surrendered on July 19.

title: 1460

date: July 24

text: July 24 – Henry of Lancaster, the former King Henry VI of England, is imprisoned in the Tower of London by order of King Edward IV. His queen consort Margaret of Anjou and Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, have fled to France.

title: 1465

date: October 3

text: October 3 – The Earl of Warwick releases King Henry VI of England from imprisonment in the Tower of London, and restores him to the throne.

title: 1470

date: May 12

text: May 12 – The siege of London is attempted by hundreds of supporters of England's House of Lancaster, who are attempting to free the former King Henry VI from imprisonment in the Tower of London. Led by Thomas Neville, the Lancastrians set cannons up on the south bank of the Thames and attempt to bombard London, but are unable to break the defense put up by Londoners led by Edward Woodville, Lord Scales, and the attack fails after three days.

title: 1471

date: May 21

text: May 21 – King Edward IV celebrates his victories with a triumphal parade on his return to London. The captured Queen Margaret is paraded through the streets. On the same day Henry VI of England is murdered in the Tower of London, eliminating all Lancastrian opposition to the House of York.

title: 1471

date: February 18

text: February 18 – George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother King Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of London.

title: 1478

date: June 13

text: June 13 – William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, is executed, in the first recorded execution at the Tower of London.

title: 1483

date: June 16

text: June 16 – Richard, Duke of York, the younger brother of King Edward V, arrives at the Tower of London.

title: 1483

date: May 19

text: May 19 – King Edward V moves into the Tower of London, the traditional residence of monarchs prior to a coronation. King Edward's coronation had recently been rescheduled for June 25.

title: 1483

date: September 3

text: September 3 – The Princes in the Tower, uncrowned 12-year-old Edward V, recently deposed as King of England, is murdered in the Tower of London along with his 10-year-old brother, Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, on the orders of their uncle, King Richard III.

title: 1483

date: November 23

text: November 23 – Perkin Warbeck, pretender to the throne of England, is hanged for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of London.

title: 1499

date: November 28

text: November 28 – Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, last male member of the House of York, is executed for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of London.

title: 1499

date: April 13

text: April 13 – Sir Thomas More, having been brought before a royal commission to swear his allegiance to the Act of Succession, testifies that he accepts Parliament's right to declare Anne Boleyn the legitimate Queen of England, but denies that the marriage is spiritually valid of the king's second marriage". Holding fast to the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy, More refuses to take the oath of supremacy toward King Henry VIII. More is confined in the Tower of London. He will be executed on July 6, 1535.

title: 1534

date: December 12

text: December 12 – Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and the Lord High Treasurer of England since 1522 is arrested along with his eldest son, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and both are imprisoned in the Tower of London. The Earl of Surrey is executed for treason on January 19; the Duke of Norfolk is sentenced to death, but before the sentence can be carried out, King Henry VIII passes away and Norfolk remains in the Tower until being pardoned in 1553.

title: 1546

section: Events › October—December

date: March 18

text: March 18 – Princess Elizabeth is imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of working with the organizers of Wyatt's rebellion for the overthrow of Queen Mary of England.

title: 1554

date: May 28

text: May 28 – English rebel Thomas Stafford and 32 of his followers are beheaded at the Tower of London after being convicted of treason.

title: 1557

date: February 8

text: February 8 – Peter Wentworth, a Puritan M.P. of the Parliament of England, is arrested in the middle of giving an address criticizing "rumours and messages" given to suppress freedom of speech. When he says that "the devil was the first author of them, from whom proceedeth nothing but wickedness", he is interrupted and taken to the Tower of London for imprisonment.

title: 1576

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Roman Catholic priest George Haydock, imprisoned in the Tower of London since 1582, states during an interrogation that he claimed that Queen Elizabeth, leader of the Church of England, was a heretic. Convicted of treason, he is executed on February 12.

title: 1584

date: February 27

text: February 27 – Sir Anthony Cope, a member of the English Parliament, is imprisoned in the Tower of London after presenting a Puritan revision of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer to the Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir John Puckering. He is released on March 23.

title: 1587

text: November 17 – Sir Walter Raleigh goes on trial for treason, in the converted Great Hall of Winchester Castle. He is found guilty, but his life is spared by King James I at this time, and he is returned to imprisonment in the Tower of London.

title: 1603

text: Mary Talbot, Countess of Shrewsbury, is released from the Tower of London, in recognition of her role in helping to discover the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury.

title: 1615

text: March 19 – Sir Walter Ralegh, English explorer of the New World, is released from prison in the Tower of London, where he has been imprisoned for treason, in order to conduct a second (ill-fated) expedition, in search of El Dorado in South America.

title: 1616

text: December 30 – Lord Clifton is imprisoned at the Tower of London for threatening Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor. Clifton is prosecuted by the Star Chamber on March 17 and eventually commits suicide in Fleet Prison.

title: 1617

text: August 28 – The "Onfall of Alyth takes place in the Scottish town of the same name when most of the members of Scotland's governing body, the Committee of States, are betrayed to English invaders. The Earl of Leven, the Earl of Crawford, the Earl Marischal, Lord Nairne and other prominent people are captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.

title: 1651

text: January 13 – Edward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in the Tower of London.

title: 1658

text: March 3 – General John Lambert, who had attempted to stop the Restoration, is arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. He escapes on April 9 but is recaptured on April 24. Though spared the death penalty for treason in 1662, he remains incarcerated on the island of Guernsey for the rest of his life until his death at age 64 on March 1, 1684.

title: 1660

text: June 27 – George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, one of the five members of the Cabal ministry in England (Lords Chudleigh, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley and Lauderdale), turns himself in after a warrant for his arrest is issued on February 25 on charges of treason (including the casting of the horoscope of King Charles II). He is held in the Tower of London for four years before being released on July 17, 1671.

title: 1667

text: May 9 – Thomas Blood, disguised as a clergyman, attempts to steal the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom from the Tower of London. He is immediately caught, because he is too drunk to run with the loot. He is later condemned to death, and then mysteriously pardoned and exiled by King Charles II.

title: 1671

text: February 15 – Four members of the English House of Lords embarrass King Charles II at the opening of the latest session of the "Cavalier Parliament" by proclaiming that the session is not legitimate because it had not met in more than a year. The Duke of Buckingham, backed by Lord Shaftesbury, Lord Salisbury and Baron Wharton, makes an unsuccessful motion to end the session. When the four Lords refuse to apologize, they are arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London.

title: 1677

text: November 11 (November 1 O.S.) – England's House of Commons votes to begin impeachment proceedings against five Roman Catholic members of the House of Lords, Viscount Stafford, the Marquess of Powis, Baron Arundell, Baron Petre and Baron Belasyse accused by Protestant members as participating in a "Popish Plot". Viscount Stafford is convicted and executed, while the other four are imprisoned in the Tower of London for more than five years.

title: 1678

text: May 4 – King James II of England orders his Declaration of Indulgence, suspending penal laws against Catholics, to be read from every Anglican pulpit in England. The Church of England and its staunchest supporters, the peers and gentry, are outraged; on June 8 the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, is imprisoned in the Tower of London for refusing to proclaim it.

title: 1688

text: March 18 – Robert Charnock, who had been arrested for the Jacobite plot to kill King William is hanged at the Tower of London.

title: 1696

text: August 4 – George Seton, 5th Earl of Winton, under sentence of death for his part in the Jacobite rising of 1715, escapes from the Tower of London and flees into exile on the continent.

title: 1716

text: August 24 – Francis Atterbury, Anglican Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster, is arrested in his deanery and confined in the Tower of London for treason, accused of leading the Jacobite "Atterbury Plot" in support of the pretender James Francis Edward Stuart with the aim of overthrowing the House of Hanover and King George I of Great Britain and restoring the House of Stuart by installing Prince James as "King James III".

title: 1722

text: August 18 – Two of the four rebellious Scottish lords, Earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerinoch, are beheaded in the Tower of London (Lord Lovat is executed in 1747).

title: 1746

text: May 27 – The three Scottish leaders of the Jacobite uprising— the Earl of Kilmarnock, Lord Balmerino, and Lord Lovat— are imprisoned for treason in the Tower of London, where they are held by the British government until their execution. Boyd and Balmerino are beheaded in August, while Fraser is not put to death until April 1747.

title: 1746

text: October 30 – A fire at the Tower of London destroys its Grand Armoury and causes a quarter of a million pounds' worth of damage.

title: 1841

text: January 24 – Irish rebels damage Westminster Hall and the Tower of London with dynamite.

title: 1885


slug: toyotomi-hideyoshi

label: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

description: Japanese samurai and daimyo (1537–1598)

section: Conflict & Security

date: April 17

text: April 17 – Siege of Takamatsu: In Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi departs from the Himeji Castle in the modern-day Hyōgo Prefecture and begins his march westward with 20,000 soldiers to the Bitchū Province in the modern-day Okayama Prefecture. Along the way, he stops at the Kameyama Castle where he makes a rendezvous with the Ukita clan and 10,000 additional forces before proceeding toward the Takamatsu Castle.

title: 1582

section: Events › April–June

date: July 2

text: July 2 – Battle of Yamazaki: Counterattacking forces led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi decisively defeat Akechi Mitsuhide's smaller army; Akechi is killed while retreating to his domain.

title: 1582

text: May 21 – Battle of Shizugatake in Japan: Shibata Katsuie is defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who goes on to commence construction of Osaka Castle.

title: 1583

date: April 28

text: April 28 – (Tenshō 12, 18th day of the 3rd month) In Japan, the Battle of Komaki begins as fight between Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu when Ieyasu, commander of 100,000 men, begins the occupation of the Komakiyama Castle, prompting Hideyoshi to advance from Osaka with 30,000 troops.

title: 1584

date: May 17

text: May 17 – (Tenshō 12, 8th day of the 4th month) The conflict between Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu culminates in the Battle of Nagakute.

title: 1584

date: August 6

text: August 6 – (11th day of the 7th month of Tenshō 13) Invasion of Shikoku: In Japan, Chōsokabe Motochika surrenders the island of Shikoku to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, after a 26 day siege of the Ichinomiya Castle by 40,000 men.

title: 1585

date: June

text: June – Toyotomi Hideyoshi begins the invasion of the Japanese island of Shikoku with an army of 113,000 men on 703 ships. The troops are divided into three groups, with 60,000 commanded by Hashiba Hidenaga and Hashiba Hidetsugu toward the provinces of Awa and Tosa; 23,000 under Ukita Hideie at the province of Sanuki; and 30,000 under Kobayakawa Takakage and Kikkawa Motoharu for the province of Iyo.

title: 1585

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: January 14

text: January 14 – In Japan, Chancellor of the Realm Toyotomi Hideyoshi ends Portugal's control of the port of Nagasaki after six years. Omura Sumitada had leased the fishing village to Portuguese Jesuits on August 15, 1580.

title: 1587

section: Events › January–March

date: June 11

text: June 11 (Tensho 15, 6th day of 5th month) – Most of Kyushu is surrendered to Toyotomi Hideyoshi by Yoshihisa Shimazu, 32 days after Hideyoshi's siege of Kagoshima began (on the 3rd day of the 4th month). Hideyoshi follows on July 24 (19th day of the 6th month of Tensho 15) with an order banishing all European Christian missionaries from the province.

title: 1587

date: August 29

text: August 29 (8th day of the 7th month, Tensho 16) – In Japan, the Chancellor of the Realm, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, issues an edict for the katanagari (the :sword hunt), the confiscation of swords from any persons thought to be opposed to his rule.

title: 1588

date: August 4

text: August 4 – In Japan, the siege of Odawara, part of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's campaign to eliminate the clan of samurais led by Hōjō Ujinao, ends with the surrender of Odawara, part of Toyotomi's unification of the country.

title: 1590

section: Deaths

text: February 18 – Asahi no kata, Japanese lady, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's half-sister (b. 1543)

title: 1590

date: June 23

text: June 23 – The Japanese samurai Toyotomi Hideyoshi sends an army of 15,000 men, led by generals Maeda Toshiie and Uesugi Kagekatsu, in an attack on the Hachiōji Castle in what is now Tokyo. The castle is lightly defended, by only 1,300 men, because the samurai Hōjō Ujiteru has most of his troops engaged in defending Hideyohsi's siege of Odawara. The castle is captured after one day, and later destroyed on orders of the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu.

title: 1590

date: April 21

text: April 21 – Japanese tea-master Sen no Rikyū commits seppuku, on the order of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

title: 1591

section: Health & Medicine

date: October 8

text: October 8 – The Separation Edict, a law imposing an immobile social class structure in Japan, is promulgated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

title: 1591

section: Events › October–December

date: September 4

text: September 4 – The Kunohe rebellion, which was started by Kunohe Masazane on March 13 on northern Honshu island in Japan's Mutsu Province (in the modern-day Iwate Prefecture), is suppressed by the samurai Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Chancellor of the Realm. The victory completes the unification of Japan.

title: 1591

date: December 27

text: December 27 – Spanish Jesuit priest Gregorio Céspedes becomes the first Christian missionary to Korea, arriving at Busan to begin his ministry in the Buddhist kingdom of Joseon. Céspedes is able to enter Korea by coming with the Japanese invasion force of General Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

title: 1593

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: December 8

text: December 8 – In Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Chancellor of the Realm, orders the arrest of the 26 Roman Catholic Christians who had the misfortune of being shipwrecked in Kyoto on October 19; each of the ones arrested has a part of the left ear cut off, then sent on a forced march to Nagasaki on January 4, then has them killed on February 5.

title: 1596

section: Religion & Belief

date: January 4

text: January 4 – Japan's Chancellor of the Realm, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, sends 26 European Christians, arrested on December 8, 1596, on a forced march from Kyoto to Nagasaki.

title: 1597

date: September 18

text: September 18 (Keichō 3, 18th day of the 8th month) – General Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who united Japan and became the Chancellor of the Realm, dies after ruling 12 years. He is nominally succeeded by his 5-year-old son, Toyotomi Hideyori, with the regency exercised by the Council of Five Elders.

title: 1598


slug: trajan

label: Trajan

description: 13th Roman Emperor (98–117)

year_label: 48 CE

section: Births

text: Ulpia Marciana, sister of Trajan (d. 112)

title: 40s

section: Births › AD 48

year_label: 53 CE

text: (approximate year) Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Roman emperor (d. 117)

title: 50s

section: Births › 53 AD

year_label: 68 CE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, father of Trajan, becomes consul.

title: AD 68

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

date: July 4

text: July 4 – Salonia Matidia, niece of Trajan (d. AD 119)

title: AD 68

year_label: 86 CE

text: Roman general (and future emperor) Trajan begins a campaign to crush an uprising in Germania.

title: AD 86

year_label: 91 CE

text: Manius Acilius Glabrio and Marcus Ulpius Traianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 91

year_label: 96 CE

text: Marcus Ulpius Traianus becomes governor of Upper Germany.

title: AD 96

year_label: 97 CE

date: October 28

text: October 28 – Emperor Nerva recalls his general Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, age 44, from the German frontier and is forced by the Praetorian Guard to adopt him as his successor.

title: AD 97

year_label: 99 CE

section: Science & Discovery

text: Emperor Trajan returns to Rome.

title: AD 99

text: Emperor Trajan and Frontinus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 100

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Trajan begins his fourth consulship.

title: AD 101

text: Emperor Trajan returns to Rome after a successful campaign against Dacia, through which he reestablishes clear Roman sovereignty over King Decebalus.

title: AD 102

text: Emperor Trajan and Manius Laberius Maximus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 103

text: Emperor Trajan starts the second expedition against Dacia; he leaves with the Imperial Roman fleet from Brundusium.

title: AD 105

text: Emperor Trajan conquers the Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains, and surrounds the capital, Sarmizegetusa.

title: AD 106

text: An Indian ambassador is received by Emperor Trajan.

title: AD 107

date: June 24

text: June 24 – The Aqua Traiana is inaugurated by Emperor Trajan; the aqueduct channels water from Lake Bracciano, 40 km mi northwest of Rome.

title: AD 109

text: Emperor Trajan sends Pliny the Younger to be governor (legatus Augusti) of Bithynia.

title: AD 111

text: Emperor Trajan and Titus Sextius Cornelius Africanus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 112

text: Osroes I of Parthia violates the treaty with Rome by installing a puppet ruler in Armenia. Emperor Trajan marches east, without first attempting to use diplomacy to resolve the disagreement.

title: AD 113

text: Emperor Trajan sails from Rome to begin his expedition against Parthia. He arrives in Athens where Parthian envoys greet him with olive branches, a sign of peace.

title: AD 113

text: Emperor Trajan defeats the Parthians and overruns Armenia and northern Mesopotamia.

title: AD 114

text: Emperor Trajan is cut off in southern Mesopotamia after his invasion of that region.

title: AD 115

text: Emperor Trajan completes his invasion of Parthia by capturing the cities of Seleucia, Babylon, Ctesiphon and Susa, marking the high-water mark of the Roman Empire's eastern expansion.

title: AD 116

text: Emperor Trajan falls seriously ill and dies of a stroke at Selinus in Cilicia, age 63, while en route from Mesopotamia to Italy, leaving the Roman Empire at its maximal territorial extent.

title: AD 117

date: August 8

text: August 8 – Trajan, Roman emperor (b. AD 53)

title: AD 117

text: Trajan's Forum (commissioned by the late Emperor Trajan) is completed with triumphal arches, columns, a market complex, and an enormous basilica, all of which replace hundreds of dwellings.

title: AD 118

text: Salonia Matidia (a niece of former Emperor Trajan) dies. Hadrian delivers her funeral oration, and grants her a temple in Rome.

title: AD 119

date: December 23

text: December 23 – Salonia Matidia, niece of Trajan (b. AD 68)

title: AD 119

text: Marcus Aurelius, a Spaniard like Trajan and Hadrian, is a stoical disciple of Epictetus, and an energetic man of action. He pursues the policy of his predecessor and maintains good relations with the Senate. As a legislator, he endeavors to create new principles of morality and humanity, particularly favoring women and slaves.

title: AD 161

date: January 1

text: January 1 – Year of the Five Emperors: The Roman Senate chooses Publius Helvius Pertinax, against his will, to succeed the late Commodus as Emperor. Pertinax is forced to reorganize the handling of finances, which were wrecked under Commodus, to reestablish discipline in the Roman army, and to suspend the food programs established by Trajan, provoking the ire of the Praetorian Guard.

title: AD 193

text: Constantine I continues construction of a bridge (in imitation of Trajan and his architect Apollodorus of Damascus) across the Danube, for forward-staging grounds for planned campaigns against local tribes.

title: 332


slug: transoxiana

label: Transoxiana

description: Ancient name used for the portion of Central Asia

text: Paper, made in China, arrives in Transoxiana.

title: AD 150

section: Events › By topic › Art and science

text: The Hephthalites (White Huns) move south from the Altai Mountains region into Transoxiana, Bactria, Khorasan and eastern Persia.

title: 440

section: Events › By place › Persia

text: Arab armies conquer Khurasan (Iran), and the Silk Road along Transoxiana (Central Asia).

title: 655

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: Muslim Conquest: Arab forces of the Umayyad Caliphate resume the push to capture Persian lands, and begin to move towards the lands east and north of the plateau, towards Greater Khorasan (Iran) and the Silk Road along Transoxiana.

title: 662

section: Events › By place › Arab Empire

text: Qapaghan Qaghan conquers parts of Transoxiana (Central Asia).

title: 698

date: February 23

text: February 23 – Caliph Al-Walid I dies at Damascus after a 10-year reign, and is succeeded by his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. During his rule the Umayyad Caliphate reaches its greatest height, with successful campaigns undertaken in Transoxiana (Central Asia), Sindh (Pakistan), Hispania and against the Byzantine Empire.

title: 715

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

text: Umayyad conquest of Transoxiana: The first Turgesh attack on Muslim-Arabs in Transoxiana leads to the siege and relief of the Umayyad garrison at the fortress of Qasr al-Bahili, near Samarkand (or 721).

title: 720

text: Battle of Baykand: The Umayyad Arabs narrowly escape disaster when cut off from water by the Turgesh, and push through to reach Bukhara in Transoxiana.

title: 729

date: September 30

text: September 30 – Battle of the Baggage: The Turgesh drive back an Umayyad invasion of Khuttal, pursue them south of the River Oxus (northern Afghanistan), and capture their baggage train. In the winter, the Turgesh and their Transoxianan allies launch a major counter-invasion but are halted and their army is destroyed. Khuttal is then conquered by the Arabs.

title: AD 737

text: Summer – The Persian nobility installs Isma'il ibn Ahmad, the former governor of Transoxiana, as ruler (emir) of the Samanid Empire, after the death of his brother Nasr I.

title: 892

text: Spring – Forces under the Transoxianian emir Isma'il ibn Ahmad are victorious at Balkh (Northern Afghanistan) over Amr ibn al-Layth; the latter is captured and sent to Caliph Al-Mu'tadid in Baghdad. The Samanid Dynasty rules over Khorasan, as well as Transoxiana. A few months later, the Samanids conquer the Zaydid emirate of Tabaristan. This victory marks the beginning of the dispersion of the local Shi'ites by the new Sunni power.

title: 900

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Caliphate

text: The Ghaznavid Empire occupies Transoxiana (approximate date).

title: 1023

text: Böritigin, ruler of Transoxiana (Kara-Khanid Khanate)

title: 1068

date: December 15

text: December 15 – Sultan Alp Arslan ("Heroic Lion") dies after a 9-year reign, during his campaign in Transoxiana. He is succeeded by his 17-year-old son Malik-Shah I, who is declared new ruler of the Seljuk Empire. Qavurt, a brother of Alp Arslan, claims the Seljuk throne for himself and occupies the capital of Isfahan.

title: 1072

section: Events › By place › Seljuk Empire

text: The windmill is first introduced to China, with the travels of Yelü Chucai to Transoxiana.

title: 1219

section: Events › By topic › Technology

date: March 13

text: March 13 – Muhammad Sultan Mirza, the favorite grandson and heir to the throne of the Emperor Tamerlane, Emperor of Transoxiana (comprising modern Afghanistan and parts of Iran, Tadzikstan and Kazakhstan), dies from injuries sustained in the Battle of Ankara.

title: 1403

date: May 13

text: May 13 – The Timurid War of Succession comes to an end as Khalil Sultan surrenders Samarkand to Shah Rukh, ruler of the Timurid Empire since 1405. Shah Rukh installs his son Ulugh Beg as Governor of Transoxiana. Shah Rukh then appoints Khalil as Governor of Shahr-e Rey in modern-day Iran.

title: 1409


slug: transylvania

label: Transylvania

description: historical and geographical region in the central and western part of Romania

section: Conflict & Security

text: Third Battle of Tapae: Roman forces, led by Trajan, defeat the Dacian king Decebalus in Transylvania.

title: AD 101

date: May

text: May – Krum, ruler (khan) of the Bulgarian Empire, begins his territorial expansion and raids the Byzantine northern frontier. He leads his warriors — mostly Bulgars, Slavs, Thracians and Macedonians — across the Carpathian Mountains, over the Danube River, and throughout Transylvania, Thrace, and Macedonia.

title: 803

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: King Stephen I of Hungary invades Transylvania (modern Romania) and establishes the Diocese of Transylvania (approximate date).

title: 1003

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The first German colonists (the future Transylvanian Saxon community) arrive in Transylvania, following grants by Geza II of Hungary. The colonization process is completed in 1162.

title: 1141

section: Events

text: The Teutonic Knights are expelled from Transylvania by King Andrew II, because they wanted to separate from Hungary.

title: 1225

text: The Transylvanian town of Reghin is first mentioned, in a charter of King Andrew II of Hungary.

title: 1228

section: Events › By topic › Cities and Towns

date: July 2

text: July 2 – King Béla IV grants territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Severin and Hungarian Cumania (according to a document called the Diploma of the Joannites), makes an early mention of Litovoi and other Vlach/Romanian local rulers, in Wallachia and Transylvania.

title: 1247

date: December 10

text: December 10 – Hungarian Civil War, a dynastic conflict, erupts between King Béla IV and his son, Duke Stephen. Hungarian forces under Ladislaus II Kán invades Stephen's realm and push forward unhindered penetrating the valley of the Mureș River in the southern part of Transylvania. Stephen's army halts Ladislaus' advance at the Fortress of Deva (modern Romania).

title: 1264

date: October 13

text: October 13 – In the Battle of the Breadfield, the army of the Kingdom of Hungary, led by Pál Kinizsi and István Báthory, defeats the army of the Ottoman Empire and Transylvania and Hungary, leaving at least 10,000 Ottoman Turks dead.

title: 1479

section: Events › October–December

date: July 14

text: July 14 – The Hungarian rebel leader György Dózsa is defeated in battle at Temesvár in Transylvania in Hungary

title: 1514

section: Events › July–September

date: June 29

text: June 29 or 30 – The oldest surviving dateable document written primarily in the Romanian language: Neacșu's letter, written by a trader from Câmpulung, to Johannes Benkner, the mayor of Brașov, warning that the Ottoman Empire is preparing its troops to cross into Wallachia and Transylvania; the script used is Romanian Cyrillic.

title: 1521

section: Events › April–June

text: Stephen Báthory becomes governor of Transylvania.

title: 1529

section: Events › Date unknown

date: July 22

text: July 22 – Treaty of Constantinople between the Ottoman Empire and the Archduchy of Austria: Ferdinand I, King of the Romans, withdraws his claims to most of Hungary and János Szapolyai, voivode of Transylvania, becomes King of Hungary under the suzerainty of Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1533

date: July 19

text: July 19 – The Treaty of Weissenburg goes into effect as John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary since 1540, abdicates in favor of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria. In addition, the independent Kingdom of Transylvania, ruled by Isabella Jagiellon, is ceded to the Kingdom of Hungary as part of peace with Ferdinand.

title: 1551

section: Culture & Society

date: May 1

text: May 1 – Stephen Báthory, the Hungarian Prince of Transylvania, is crowned king of Poland.

title: 1576

date: October 26

text: October 26 – Battle of Keresztes: The Ottoman Empire Turks defeat a combined Habsburg–Transylvanian army, after two days of fighting: .

title: 1596

date: January 7

text: January 7 – The Holy Roman Empire and Transylvania sign the Peace of Nikolsburg.

title: 1622

section: Events › January–May

date: December 20

text: December 20 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Transylvanian monarch Bethlen Gabor sign the Peace of Pressburg.

title: 1626

text: The Tatar invasions in Transylvania devastate many towns, including Cavnic, Sighet and Dej.

title: 1717

text: January 7 – The Siculicidium is carried out as hundreds of the Székely minority in Transylvania are massacred by the Austrian Army at Madéfalva.

title: 1764

section: Events › January–June

date: October 31

text: October 31–December 14 – The Revolt of Horea, Cloșca and Crișan in Transylvania causes Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor to suspend the Hungarian Constitution.

title: 1784

date: December 25

text: December 25 – Hungarian forces, led by Józef Bem, enter Kolozsvár (Cluj), after defeating the Austrian armies in northern Transylvania.

title: 1848

date: May 15

text: May 15 – 40,000 Romanians meet at Câmpia Libertății in Blaj, to protest Transylvania becoming a part of Hungary.

title: 1848

date: October 24

text: October 24 – Romanian bands massacre 640 Hungarian civilians at the town of Zlatna, Transylvania. The massacre continues into 1849.

title: 1848

date: October 3

text: October 3 – General Anton Puchner, commander of the Austrian armies of Transylvania, declares insurrection against Hungary, and, together with Karl von Urban in the north and the Romanian insurgents led by Avram Iancu, attacks and chases away the Hungarian armed forces occupying Transylvania.

title: 1848

date: January 21

text: January 21 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: At Nagyszeben (now Sibiu in Romania)– The Hungarian army in Transylvania, led by Josef Bem, is defeated by the Austrians, led by Anton Puchner.

title: 1849

section: Events › January–March

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian government, led by Bertalan Szemere promulgates the Nationality Law, which gives important rights to the nationalities of Hungary, like the right to use their mother tongue in school, church, army, court and administration. The Romanians are declared a nation, and not a minority, in Transylvania. The Jews receive equality thanks to the Emancipation Decree.

title: 1849

date: June 20

text: June 20 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: Russian troops, under the command of Alexander von Lüders, break in Transylvania, and, together with the Austrian forces, start to operate against the Hungarian troops, led by Józef Bem.

title: 1849

date: March 11

text: March 11 – Hungarian Revolution of 1848: The Hungarian army of Transylvania, under general Josef Bem, defeats the Russian-Austrian army at Second Battle of Nagyszeben, capturing the city which is the headquarters of Austrian general Anton Puchner. Most of Transylvania is liberated from the Austrian rule. The Austrian and the Russian troops flee to Wallachia.

title: 1849

date: December 1

text: December 1 – The Union of Alba Iulia is proclaimed: Following the March 27 incorporation of Bessarabia and Bucovina, Transylvania unites with the Kingdom of Romania.

title: 1918

section: Events › December

date: August 30

text: August 30 – Second Vienna Award: Germany and Italy compel Romania to cede half of Transylvania to Hungary.

title: 1940

section: Events › August


slug: trier

label: Trier

description: city in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany

year_label: 16 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Caesar Augustus reorganizes the German provinces, making Trier their capital.

title: 16 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

year_label: 70 CE

text: Naval clashes on the Rhine during the Batavian Revolt; the crew of a captured Roman flagship is imprisoned at Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier).

title: AD 70

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: The Porta Nigra is built in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier). (approximate date)

title: AD 170

text: The Igel Column is erected at Trier in Germany.

title: 250

section: Events › By topic › Art and science

text: Postumus executes Saloninus and his adviser Silvanus after breaching the walls of Cologne. He is recognized as emperor and establishes his capital at Trier.

title: 260

section: Crime & Justice

text: Victorinus is declared emperor of the Gallic Empire by the legions at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), following the murders of his predecessors. He is recognized by the provinces of Gaul and Britain, but Hispania might have reunited with the Roman Empire.

title: 268

text: Constantine establishes his capital in Augusta Treverorum (Trier). He begins a major expansion of the city, strengthening the walls, expanding the palace complex and building the Imperial Baths.

title: 306

text: Immense baths are constructed in Augusta Treverorum (modern-day Trier).

title: 315

text: Crispus, eldest son of Constantine I, leads a victorious campaign against the Franks, assuring twenty years of peace along the Rhine frontier. He establishes his residence in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), capital of Germania.

title: 320

section: Climate & Environment

date: November 7

text: November 7 – Athanasius is banished to Trier, on the charge that he prevented the grain fleet from sailing to Constantinople.

title: 335

text: Spring – Emperor Valentinian I and his 8-year-old son, Gratian, cross the Rhine with an army into Alamannic territory. He defeats the Alemanni and burns food stores along the border. A temporary peace is signed with Macrian, king of the Bucinobantes, and Valentinian returns to his capital Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier).

title: 368

text: Gratian, age 16, takes over the government at Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), but ministers wishing to retain the loyalty of the Illyrian army fear a usurper. They proclaim Valentinian's 4-year-old son Valentinian II co-emperor with his mother, Justina, as regent. Gratian reserves for himself the administration of the Gallic provinces, and hands over Italy, Illyrium, Hispania and Africa to his stepmother, who makes Mediolanum (Milan) her residence.

title: 375

text: Roman troops in Britannia proclaim Magnus Maximus as their Emperor. He crosses over to the continent and makes Trier his capital. Gaul, the Italian provinces and Hispania proclaim loyalty to him.

title: AD 383

section: Religion & Belief

text: Priscillian, Spanish bishop, is accused of Manichaeism and magic, and beheaded at Trier . He becomes the first person in the history of Christianity to be executed for heresy.

title: 385

section: Events › By topic › Religion

date: August 28

text: August 28 – Magnus Maximus surrenders at Aquileia, and is executed. Theodosius I devotes himself to gluttony and voluptuous living. Maximus' son Flavius Victor is executed at Trier, by Valentinian's magister militum Arbogast.

title: 388

text: The Franks conquer new territories in their kingdom and sack the old Roman capital Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier).

title: 421

section: Deaths

date: February 19

text: February 19 – Leontius of Trier, Bishop of Trier

title: 446

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Attila's forces invade Gaul and sack Metz. The major cities of Strasbourg, Worms, Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Reims, Tournai, Cambrai, Amiens and Beauvais are destroyed by the Huns.

title: 451

text: The Franks conquer the city of Trier. The Frankish Kingdom becomes a military power and gets involved in Roman politics.

title: 459

text: Regino of Prüm, a Benedictine churchman, is expelled from Prüm and becomes abbot of St. Maximin's Abbey (which is destroyed by the Vikings) in Trier.

title: 899

section: Births

text: Egbert, archbishop of Trier (approximate date)

title: 950

date: October 7

text: October 7 – At Trier, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, hosts an elaborate banquet for the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and various prince-electors of the electorates within the Empire, ostensibly to work towards a common union of nations to begin a new crusade against the Ottomans, but offends most of his guests because of his arrogant ambition.

title: 1473

date: September 30

text: September 30 – The Trier Conference begins in the German city of Trier as Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor and Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy make a grand entry into the city of Trier for a meeting of central European leaders to respond to the threat of an invasion by the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1473


slug: tripoli-lebanon

label: Tripoli, Lebanon

description: city in northern Lebanon

year_label: 312 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Demetrius rallies the remnants of his army at Tripolis and summons reinforcements from the garrisons of upper Syria and Cilicia; he also writes his father, Antigonus, and urges him to send help. Meanwhile Ptolemy captures Acre, Joppa, Samaria and Sidon, and starts to besiege Tyre.

title: 312 BC

section: Events › By place › Syria/Mesopotamia/Babylonia

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor John I raids Mesopotamia and invades Syria, using the Byzantine base at Antioch to press southwards to Tripoli. He conquers the cities of Baalbek, Damascus, Sidon, Tiberias and Caesarea, but fails to take Jerusalem.

title: 975

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

date: February 14

text: February 14 – The Crusaders under Raymond IV besiege the fortified town of Akkar – whose garrison is loyal to Jalal al-Mulk Abu'l-Hasan, emir of Tripoli (modern Lebanon). On May 13 after a 3-month siege the investment of Akkar is raised and Raymond orders the camp to be struck. The Crusader host, finally joined by the forces of Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert II, resumes his march southwards to Tripoli.

title: 1099

section: Events › By place › First Crusade

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: May

text: May or June – Count Raymond IV of Toulouse (Saint-Gilles) sails to Constantinople to obtain the support of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in his attempt to seize Tripoli.

title: 1100

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: Siege of Tripoli: The Crusaders under Raymond IV begin the siege of Tripoli (modern Lebanon). The garrison calls for assistance, but a Seljuk relief army from Damascus and Homs is defeated by Raymond.

title: 1102

text: The Crusaders under Raymond IV invade the Beqaa Valley and capture Tortosa to isolate Tripoli. Raymond expands towards the Orontes River, and begins to build a castle on the Mons Peregrinus which helps in the Siege of Tripoli (see 1102). Emperor Alexios I supports the Crusaders by sending a Byzantine fleet (ten ships) to blockade the port of Tripoli.

title: 1103

date: February 28

text: February 28 – Raymond IV dies at his castle of Mons Peregrinus ("Pilgrim's Mountain") near Tripoli. Raymond leaves his 2-year-old son Alfonso I by his third wife, Elvira of Castile, to rule the County of Tripoli. Raymond's nephew William-Jordan, count of Cerdagne, becomes regent over Alfonso. Bertrand, the eldest son of Raymond, inherits the title 'Count of Toulouse'.

title: 1105

date: July 12

text: July 12 – Siege of Tripoli: After a 7-year siege (supported by the Genoese fleet), Tripoli falls to the Crusaders. Fakhr al-Mulk ibn Ammar, qadi of Tripoli, submits to Bertrand of Toulouse (the eldest son of Raymond IV). He establishes the County of Tripoli, the fourth Crusader state in the Middle East. Raymond's nephew William II Jordan dies of an arrow wound sustained during the siege, leaving Bertrand as its sole ruler.

title: 1109

date: April 29

text: April 29 – A delegation under Balian of Ibelin is sent to Tiberias, to reconcile with Raymond III, prince of Galilee. After Easter, a second delegation (supported by the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller) is sent to Tripoli, but the situation remains unchanged.

title: 1187

date: May 14

text: May 14 – Saladin begins a campaign and marches north but finds Tripoli too strong to be besieged. He decides to take other Crusader fortifications and signs an 8-month truce with Prince Bohemond III of Antioch.

title: 1188

date: October 28

text: October 28 – A Crusader advance guard is ambushed by the Egyptian garrison of Safed, while local Arabs attack the Crusader camp. The 13-year-old Hugh II, ruler of Cyprus, is advised to retire and withdraw with heavy losses. Meanwhile, Baibars campaigns in Galilee and leads a lightning raid to Tripoli.

title: 1266

date: April 8

text: April 8 – Siege of Krak des Chevaliers: Mamluk forces under Baibars capture the strategically important castle Krak des Chevaliers from the Knights Hospitaller. During the siege the defenders receive a letter, supposedly from Grand Master Hugues de Revel, to surrender the castle. Under safe-conduct the Hospitallers retreat to Tripoli.

title: 1271

date: March

text: March – The 19-year-old King Henry II sends his younger brother Almalric, with a company of knights and 4 galleys to Tripoli (modern Lebanon). Meanwhile, many non-combatant citizens flee to Cyprus. The Mamluk army arrives before Tripoli and begins the attack with siege engines, while building buches (wooden defensive structures) outside the city on March 25.

title: 1289

date: September 3

text: September 3 (1 Muharram 702 AH) – At the start of the new Muslim year 702 AH, Mamluk Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad sends a fleet of 20 galleys) to Tripoli of Lebanon, where Mamluk forces led by Kahardash al-Zarraq al-Mansuri, begin a blockade and siege.

title: 1302

section: Events › July–September

date: May 28

text: May 28 – C. Laan brings order to the chaos created by the dockworker riots of Tripoli, Lebanon.

title: 1873

section: Events › May


slug: tripoli-libya

label: Tripoli, Libya

description: capital city of Libya

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Arab armies continue their military expansion into North Africa and lay siege to Tripoli. The city is captured after one month.

title: 643

section: Events › By place › Africa

text: At about this time, Muslim Umayyad Caliphate forces led by Uqba ibn Nafi overrun the south coast of the Mediterranean Sea. He occupies the cities of Tripoli and Carthage, the last Byzantine bases in Africa. In 682 or 683 the Umayyads are ambushed at the Battle of Vescera near Biskra (modern Algeria) by Romano-Berbers of King Caecilius and their Byzantine allies from the Exarchate of Carthage. Uqba ibn Nafi is killed and his army evacuates the city of Kairouan in Tunisia and withdraws to Barca.

title: 682

text: The Warfajuma Berbers and their Sufrite allies sweep up from southern Tunisia and capture Kairouan, killing Emir Habib Al-Fihri and putting an end to the Fihrid dynasty. In the meantime, the Ibadites that Ibn Habib had driven out of Tripoli return, rallied by their imam Abu al-Khattab al-Ma'afiri in Jebel Nefusa, the Ibadites recapture Tripoli.

title: AD 757

text: Caliph Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid Caliphate replaces the unpopular governor Ibn Abi Khinzir with Ali ibn Umar al-Balawi. But the Sicilian lords find this unacceptable and decide to declare independence of Sicily. They acknowledge allegiance to the Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadir and acclaim an Aghlabid prince, Ahmed ibn Khorob, as emir of Sicily. The Sicilians re-launch their conquest of Byzantine Calabria, while Ahmed ibn Khorob in Sicily leads a successful assault against the North African cities of Sfax and Tripoli.

title: 913

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

text: Khazrun ben Falful, from the Maghrawa family Banu Khazrun, begins ruling Tripoli, on the African continent.

title: 1001

text: A Norman raid against the city of Tripoli fails.

title: 1142

text: Summer – King Roger II launches a full scale invasion into North Africa, seizing lands from Emir Abu'l-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali in what is now parts of Algeria, Tunisia and Libya – thereby opening up more of the mercantile wealth of the Muslim world to Sicilian merchants. On June 18, George of Antioch conquers Tripoli and establishes more Sicilian authority.

title: 1146

section: Culture & Society

date: March 23

text: March 23 – The Tribute of the Maltese Falcon, an agreement by the Grand Master of the Order of St John of Jerusalem to pay an annual tribute to the Charles V, King of Sicily, in return for an order granting the Knights full rulership of Tripoli and the islands of Malta and Gozo, is reached. The transfer of ownership takes place on October 26, 1550, although Tripoli is conquered by the Ottomans on August 15, 1551.

title: 1530

section: Events › January–March

date: August 15

text: August 15 – The Siege of Tripoli ends, with the Knights of Malta surrendering Tripoli to the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1551

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: November 4

text: November 4 – The Treaty of Tripoli (between the United States and Tripoli) is signed at Tripoli (see also 1797).

title: 1796

section: Events › October–December

date: October 21

text: October 21 – In Boston Harbor, the 44-gun United States Navy frigate is launched to fight Barbary pirates off the coast of Tripoli; the ship will remain in commission in the 21st century.

title: 1797

date: August 1

text: August 1 – First Barbary War: Action of 1 August 1801 – United States Navy schooner captures the 14-gun Tripolitan corsair polacca Tripoli off the north African coast, in a single-ship action.

title: 1801

date: February 16

text: February 16 – First Barbary War: Stephen Decatur leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate at Tripoli to deny her further use by the captors.

title: 1804

date: April 27

text: April 27 – Battle of Derne: United States Marines and Berbers attack the Tripolitan city of Derna (the Shores of Tripoli).

title: 1805

section: Events › April–June

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: April 15

text: April 15 – Operation El Dorado Canyon: At least 15 people die after United States planes bomb targets in the Libyan capital, Tripoli, and the Benghazi region.

title: 1986

section: Events › April

section: Health & Medicine

date: July 24

text: July 24 – Five Bulgarian nurses are released from Libyan prison after eight and a half years spent behind bars in Benghazi and Tripoli, marking the end of the so-called "HIV trial in Libya".

title: 2007

section: Events › July

date: April 4

text: April 4 – Second Libyan Civil War: The Libyan National Army (LNA) launches a surprise offensive in western Libya, moving units towards the Government of National Accord-held capital Tripoli and capturing Gharyan.

title: 2019

date: June 4

text: June 4 – Libya's Government of National Accord (GNA) says they are in full control of the capital, Tripoli, after forces of the Libyan National Army (LNA) retreat from the territory following months of intense fighting in the city.

title: 2020

section: Events › June


slug: tripolitania

label: Tripolitania

description: historic region and former province of Libya

section: Conflict & Security

text: Having first crossed into Africa in 296, Emperor Maximian concludes his campaigns against the Quinquegentiani and other Berbers. His campaigns had ranged as far as Mauretania in the west and Tripolitania in the east. Julianus, a rebel leader in Africa, throws himself into a fire after the Romans breach the walls of his stronghold.

title: 299

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: Emperor Anthemius sends a Roman expedition under command of Marcellinus. He expels the Vandals from Sicily and retakes Sardinia. The Eastern general Heraclius of Edessa lands with a force on the Libyan coast, east of Carthage, and advances from Tripolitania.

title: 468

text: Spring – Vandalic War: Anti-Vandal revolt in Tripolitania and Sardinia; Gelimer, king of the Vandals, dispatches the bulk of the Vandal fleet (120 ships and 5,000 men) under his brother Tzazo to Sardinia. Byzantine forces from Cyrenaica occupy Leptis Magna and Tripolis.

title: 533

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Battle of Marta: The Byzantine army under John Troglita is defeated by Moorish tribes in Tripolitania. He flees to Lunci (9 km south of Mahares), and is forced to withdraw north to the fortress of Laribus (near modern El Kef).

title: 547

text: Arab–Byzantine War: An Arab army (20,000 men) under Abdullah ibn Sa'ad invades the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa. It conquers Tripolitania and the city of Sufetula, 150 miles (240 km) south of Carthage.

title: 647

text: Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri, ruler of Ifriqiya (North Africa), dispatches a Muslim army and reconquers Tripolitania from the Ibadites (a puritanical Khaijite sect), driving their remnants south into the Nafusa Mountains (northwestern Libya).

title: 752

text: The last evidence of indigenous Christian and non-Arabophone culture in Tripolitania (modern Libya) is seen.

title: 1021

text: The Merinids of Maghrib al-Aqsa attempt to resist the Almohads but are forced into the desert areas around the Tafilalt. Oran falls to the Almohads. A Norman raid against the Tripolitania region succeeds.

title: 1145


slug: trondheim

label: Trondheim

description: city in Trøndelag, Norway

text: Trondheim is founded by King Olav Tryggvason. This will function as the main city and capital of Norway, until Bergen is founded in 1070.

title: 997

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: The 15-year-old King Inge I ("the Hunchback") of Norway calls for a meeting at Bergen of all religious leaders in anticipation that the English cardinal Nicholas Breakspear will find an archbishopric at Trondheim.

title: 1150

section: Events › By topic › Religion

section: Religion & Belief

text: The Archbishopric of Nidaros in the city of Nidaros (modern-day Trondheim) in Norway is established.

title: 1152

date: May 24

text: May 24 – Duke Skule Bårdsson, claimant to the Norwegian throne, is defeated by King Haakon IV ("the Old") and his supporters. He seeks refuge in Elgeseter Priory in Trondheim, and Haakon burns down the monastery, in which Skule is burned alive. Haakon becomes the undisputed ruler; this ends the civil war era in Norway, after 110 years.

title: 1240

date: September 8

text: September 8 – Erik of Pomerania becomes the new King of Norway with the regnal name of Erik III after being elected at Trondheim by the Ting, the kingdom's assembly.

title: 1389

section: Events › July–September

date: November 20

text: November 20 – Karl Knutsson, reigning as King Karl VIII of Sweden, is crowned as King Karl I of Norway in a ceremony at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim.

title: 1449

date: August 2

text: August 2 – The coronation of Christian I of Denmark as King of Norway takes place at Trondheim.

title: 1450

date: July 20

text: July 20 – The coronation of Hans, King of Denmark as crowned King of Norway is held at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim.

title: 1483

date: April 1

text: April 1 – The Archbishop of Norway, Olav Engelbrektsson, flees from Trondheim to Lier, Belgium.

title: 1537

date: September 7

text: September 7 – Carl III of Sweden–Norway is crowned king of Norway, in Trondheim.

title: 1818


slug: true-cross

label: True Cross

description: concept of the cross upon which Jesus was crucified

section: Births

text: Saint Helena, Roman empress who was the reputed discoverer of Christ’s cross and mother of Emperor Constantine (d. 318)

title: 255

date: September 14

text: September 14 (traditional date) – Helena, mother of Constantine I, discovers the so-called True Cross and the Holy Sepulchre (Jesus's tomb) in Jerusalem. On her pilgrimage, which begins about this year, she pauses on the Aegean island of Patmos, where she is said to found the church of Panagia Ekatontapiliani.

title: 326

text: Emperor Justin II and his wife Sophia send a relic of the "True Cross" to the Frankish princess Radegund, who has founded a monastery at Poitiers.

title: 569

text: Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem: A Persian–Judaean army (26,000 men) commanded by Shahrbaraz captures and sacks Jerusalem, after a 20-day siege against the Byzantine Empire. Somewhere between 57,000 and 66,500 citizens are slain; another 35,000 are enslaved, including the Patriarch Zacharias. Many churches in the city (including the "Church of the Resurrection" or Holy Sepulchre) are burned, and numerous relics, including the True Cross, the Holy Lance, and the Holy Sponge, are carried off to the Persian capital Ctesiphon.

title: 614

section: Culture & Society

text: September 14 – Emperor Heraclius enters Constantinople in triumph. In a ceremonial parade, accompanied by the True Cross, he is welcomed by the citizens and his son Heraclius Constantine.

title: 629

date: March 21

text: March 21 – Emperor Heraclius returns the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. He tries to promote Monothelitism, which is rejected by the Christians.

title: 630

section: Crime & Justice

text: Mosan artists create the Stavelot Triptych, a masterpiece of Goldsmithing, as a reliquary to house purported pieces of the True Cross.

title: 1156

section: Events › By topic › Art and Science

date: March 27

text: March 27 – Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) holds a Diet at Mainz and takes the Cross, followed by his 21-year-old son, Frederick IV, and other German nobles. He sends a delegation to present an ultimatum to Saladin in Syria on May 26. With demands to withdraw his Muslim forces from Palestina and to return the True Cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

title: 1188

text: Battle of Tryavna: Byzantine forces under Isaac II are ambushed and defeated by the Bulgarians in a mountain pass, near Tryavna. In panic, the Byzantines break up and begin a disorganized retreat. Isaac barely escapes, his Varangian Guard has to cut a path through their own soldiers, enabling their emperor's flight from the rout. The Bulgarians capture the imperial treasure, including the golden helmet of Isaac, his crown, and the Imperial Cross which contains a wooden piece of the Holy Cross.

title: 1190

text: Summer – Emperor Otto IV is excommunicated and forced to abdicate as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. The German nobles, supported by Innocent III, again elect the 20-year-old Frederick II as King of the Romans who is crowned in Aachen, on July 25. The same day, Frederick takes the Cross and promises to go on Crusade.

title: 1215

section: Events › By continent › Europe

date: April 26

text: April 26 – The Gothic chapel Sainte-Chapelle (Holy Chapel) is completed and consecrated in Paris. Louis IX moves the relics of the True Cross and Holy Lance to the chapel with great ceremony.

title: 1248

date: April 17

text: April 17 – The impostor Tagaris follows his donation of relics to Ancona with what he claims is one of the nails from the True Cross upon which Jesus of Nazareth had been crucified in the first century, as well as a foot from the skeleton of Saint Anne, mother of the Virgin Mary and grandmother of Jesus. His claims are believed by the leaders of Ancona and he is appointed as the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople by Pope Urban VI .

title: 1380


slug: tsar

label: Tsar

description: Slavic title given to a male or female monarch

text: Isaac II starts a campaign against the Bulgarians, who claim their independence. After passing the Balkan Mountains, Isaac marches westward to besiege Tarnovo, the new Bulgarian capital. Meanwhile, the Byzantine fleet reaches the Danube River in order to block the way of Cuman reinforcements from the North. The defense of Tarnovo is led by Ivan Asen I, emperor (Tsar) of Bulgaria. After spreading rumors of the arrival of a Cuman army to relieve the city, Isaac orders to retreat to Stara Zagora.

title: 1190

text: Tsar Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria flees from Tarnovo, ending the Asen dynasty in Bulgaria.

title: 1280

section: Events

text: The Ottomans capture the Bulgarian fortress of Vidin and Tsar Ivan Sratsimir, ending the Second Bulgarian Empire. The Bulgarian state is reestablished in 1878 as the Principality of Bulgaria.

title: 1396

section: Events › Date unknown

date: July 21

text: July 21 – Claiming to be Dmitriy, son of Ivan the Terrible, a pretender is officially crowned Tsar Dimitriy Ioannovich of Russia in Moscow by Patriarch Ignatius.

title: 1605

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: January 10

text: January 10 – Gustavus Adolphus replies to Metropolitan Isidor, Odoevskij and the estates of Novgorod, stating that he himself wishes to assume responsibility for the government of Novgorod and also of all Russians. A number of land grants signed the same day show that the Swedish king has assumed the title of Tsar.

title: 1612

section: Events › January–March

date: March 3

text: March 3 (February 21 O.S.) – An assembly of the Russian Empire elects Mikhail Romanov Tsar of Russia, ending the Time of Troubles. The House of Romanov will remain a ruling dynasty until 1917.

title: 1613

date: July 23

text: July 23 – Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich of Russia comes to the throne.

title: 1645

date: January 29

text: January 29 – Feodor III becomes Tsar of Russia.

title: 1676

text: Tsar Peter the Great of Russia studies with the physician Herman Boerhaave, at Leiden University.

title: 1716

date: January 6

text: January 6 – (December 25, 1815 on the Russian Julian calendar): Tsar Alexander I of Russia signs an order, expelling the Jesuits from St. Petersburg and Moscow.

title: 1816

date: October 5

text: October 5 – Bulgaria declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire; Ferdinand I of Bulgaria becomes Tsar.

title: 1908

section: Events › October