slug: russian-empire

label: Russian Empire

description: former empire in Eurasia and North America (1721–1917)

date: January 3

text: January 3 – The Treaty of Bakhchisarai is signed, between the Ottoman vassal Crimean Khanate and the Russian Empire.

title: 1681

section: Events › January–March

section: Conflict & Security

date: September 2

text: September 2 – Great Turkish War: Battle of Buda – Imperial forces of the Holy League of 1684 (Russia, Saxony, Brandenburg and Bavaria under Austrian leadership) liberate Buda (now part of Budapest) from Ottoman Turkish rule (leading to the end of Ottoman rule in Hungary during subsequent years).

title: 1686

date: November 22

text: November 22 – The Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye, negotiated by Johann Patkul, is signed at a palace of the Tsar of Russia Peter the Great, and representatives of Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony to provide for the partition of Swedish Empire between Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Kingdoms of Denmark-Norway and the Russian Empire. The attack on Sweden, which takes place on February 22, starts the Great Northern War.

title: 1699

section: Events › October–December

date: December 28

text: December 28 – Charles XII of Sweden and his coalition of troops begin crossing the first line of defense of the Russian Empire, the Vistula River, in their attempt to conquer Russia.

title: 1707

section: Events › October– December

section: Health & Medicine

text: Tsar Peter the Great of Russia studies with the physician Herman Boerhaave, at Leiden University.

title: 1716

section: Events › Date unknown

date: February 1

text: February 1 – The Silent Sejm, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, marks the beginning of the Russian Empire's increasing influence and control over the Commonwealth.

title: 1717

date: November 2

text: November 2 (October 22 Old Style) – The Romanov and architect of the Great Northern War Peter I, is proclaimed the first Emperor of All the Russias. This replaces the 174-year-long Tsardom of Russia with the Russian Empire, which will collapse almost 200 years later in 1917.

title: 1721

section: Events › October –December

date: August 15

text: August 15 – The Peterhof Palace is opened in a formal ceremony just outside Saint Petersburg, capital of the Russian Empire.

title: 1723

date: February 8

text: February 8 – The Supreme Privy Council is established in Russia.

title: 1726

text: January 9 – The coronation of Peter II as the Tsar of the Russian Empire takes place in Moscow.

title: 1728

date: January 21

text: January 21 – Russia and Persia sign the Treaty of Riascha at Resht. Based on the terms of the agreement, Russia will no longer establish claims over Persian territories.

title: 1732

date: August 18

text: August 18 (August 7 Old Style) – Russia and Sweden sign the Treaty of Åbo.

title: 1743

text: August 15 – Great Britain, Russia and the Dutch Republic sign the Convention of Saint Petersburg (1747).

title: 1747

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: June 3

text: June 3 – A fire destroys 13,000 houses in Moscow in the Russian Empire, only 11 days after a May 23 fire destroyed 5,000 homes; by June 6, two-thirds of the city has been damaged or destroyed.

title: 1752

text: The town of Gus-Khrustalny is established in Russia, with the setting up of a crystal glass factory.

title: 1756

date: August 25

text: August 25 – Seven Years' War – Battle of Zorndorf: Frederick halts the Russian army of Count Wilhelm Fermor near the Oder.

title: 1758

date: October 9

text: October 9 – Seven Years' War: Russian troops enter Berlin.

title: 1760

date: April 1

text: April 1 – The Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire sign a new treaty of alliance.

title: 1761

section: Deaths

date: January 5

text: January 5 – Empress Elisabeth of Russia dies, and is succeeded by her nephew Peter III. Peter, an admirer of Frederick the Great, immediately opens peace negotiations with the Prussians.

title: 1762

date: May 5

text: May 5 (April 24 O.S.) – The Treaty of Saint Petersburg ends the war between Russia and Prussia, and returns all of Russia's territorial conquests to the Prussians.

title: 1762

date: July 28

text: July 28 {O.S. July 17) – The Russo-Circassian War begins, when the Russian Empire attempts to annex Circassia.

title: 1763

date: March 31

text: March 31 – A mutual defense treaty between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia is signed in Saint Petersburg between representatives of Russia's Empress Catherine the Great and Prussia's King Frederick the Great. By agreement, each nation agrees (for an eight-year period) to commit 10,000 soldiers and 2,000 horses to the defense of the other in case of an attack, and secretly agree to maintain security within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

title: 1764

section: Events › January–June

date: August 9

text: August 9 – Russian Empress Catherine II issues a decree authorizing the new way to produce vodka (by freezing).

title: 1765

section: Events › July–December

section: Births

date: September 25

text: September 25 – Michał Kleofas Ogiński, Polish-Lithuanian, and later Russian imperial statesman and composer

title: 1765

date: February 24

text: February 24 – With Russian troops occupying the nation, opposition legislators of the national legislature having been deported, the government of Poland signs a treaty virtually turning the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into a protectorate of the Russian Empire.

title: 1768

date: July 5

text: July 5 – Battle of Chesma and Battle of Larga: The Russian Empire defeats the Ottoman Empire in both battles. When the news of the defeat reaches the Ottoman city of Smyrna (July 8), the crowd attacks the Greek community of the city (perceived as favourable to the Russian cause) and kills an estimated 200 Greeks and three Western Europeans (although some reports estimate the number of victims at 3,000 or even 5,000 including "3 or 4 thousands who die due to the fright").

title: 1770

section: Events › July– September

date: May 23

text: May 23 – Battle of Lanckorona: A force of 4,000 Russians under Alexander Suvorov defeat a Polish formation of 1,300 men.

title: 1771

date: February 17

text: February 17 – The First Partition of Poland is agreed to by Russia and Prussia, later including Austria.

title: 1772

text: Emelian Pugachev starts Pugachev's Rebellion in Russia, attacking and occupying Samara.

title: 1773

date: July 21

text: July 21 – Russia and the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with Russian victory, ending six years of war. The treaty gives Russia the right to intervene in Ottoman politics, to protect its Christian subjects.

title: 1774

text: March 28 – Foundation of the ballet troupe which becomes the world-renowned Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow, Russian Empire.

title: 1776

section: Events › March–April

date: March 10

text: March 10 – The Treaty of Aynalıkavak is signed between Ottoman Turkey and the Russian Empire, regarding the Crimean Khanate.

title: 1779

date: March 11

text: March 11 – The First League of Armed Neutrality is formed by Russia with Denmark and Sweden to try to prevent the British Royal Navy from searching neutral vessels for contraband (February 28 O.S.).

title: 1780

text: Saint Petersburg, Russia has 300,000 inhabitants.

title: 1782

text: The city of Sevastopol is founded on the Crimean Peninsula of the Russian Empire, by Rear Admiral Thomas MacKenzie.

title: 1783

text: April 8 – The Crimean Khanate, which has existed since 1441 and is a late remnant of the Mongol Golden Horde, is annexed by the Russian Empire of Catherine the Great.

title: 1783

text: January 6 – Treaty of Constantinople: The Ottoman Empire agrees to Russia's annexation of the Crimea.

title: 1784

text: April 21 – The Empress Catherine the Great of the Russian Empire issues the Charter to the Towns, providing for "a coherent, unified system of administration" for new governments organized in Russia.

title: 1785

text: December 23 – The Pale of Settlement is established by ukase of Catherine the Great, specifying those areas of the Russian Empire in which Jews are permitted permanent residency.

title: 1791

text: October 19 – The Treaty of Drottningholm is signed between the Russian Empire and Sweden establishing an alliance between the two.

title: 1791

text: January 9 – The Treaty of Jassy ends the Russian Empire's war with the Ottoman Empire over Crimea.

title: 1792

text: January 23 – Second Partition of Poland: The Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia partition the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

title: 1793

text: April 17–19 – Kościuszko Uprising – Warsaw Uprising: The Polish people overthrow the Russian garrison in Warsaw.

title: 1794

text: April 4 – Battle of Racławice: Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising defeat forces of the Russian Empire.

title: 1794

text: July 13–September 6 – Kościuszko Uprising: Siege of Warsaw – The Polish people resist a siege by armies of the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia.

title: 1794

text: March 12 – General Antoni Madaliński, a commander of the National Cavalry in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, disobeys an order from the ruling Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia imposing demobilization, advancing his troops from Ostrołęka to Kraków.

title: 1794

text: March 24 – Tadeusz Kościuszko makes his proclamation starting the Kościuszko Uprising against the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussian Partition.

title: 1794

text: October 10 – Battle of Maciejowice: Forces of the Russian Empire defeat Polish supporters of the Kościuszko Uprising; Tadeusz Kościuszko is wounded and captured.

title: 1794

text: October 24 – The Third Partition of Poland is made, dividing the territory of the Commonwealth of Poland between the Habsburg monarchy, Prussia and the Russian Empire. On November 25, Stanisław August Poniatowski formally abdicates as last King of Poland.

title: 1795

text: January 26 – The Treaty of the Third Partition of Poland is signed in St. Petersburg by the Russian Empire, Austria and the Kingdom of Prussia.

title: 1797

text: Battle of Golymin – Russian forces under General Golitsyn fight a successful rearguard action against French forces, under Marshal Murat.

title: 1806

text: Battle of Pułtusk – Russian forces under General Bennigsen narrowly escape from a direct confrontation with Napoleon, who goes into winter quarters.

title: 1806

text: February 7 – Napoleon leads the forces of the French Empire in an invasion of the Russian Empire, and begins fighting at the Battle of Eylau against Russian and Prussian forces.

title: 1807

text: March 29 – At the Diet of Porvoo, Finland's four Estates pledge allegiance to Alexander I of Russia, commencing the secession of the future Grand Duchy of Finland from Sweden. The Emperor, in return, promises to retain and uphold former laws and privileges, as well as the dominant Lutheran religion. His pledge is later interpreted by the Finns as a confirmation of constitutional laws, which had, effectively, established Finland as a separate state in real union with Russia.

title: 1809

text: July 11 – The Russian Empire removes Anton II, Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, from his office, placing a Russian-appointed bishop at the head of the Georgian church.

title: 1811

text: November 27 – The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland is signed, creating Congress Poland, a constitutional monarchy in personal union with the Russian Empire, under terms agreed at the Congress of Vienna.

title: 1815

text: May 7 – Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov is appointed as Governor-General of Novorossiya (New Russia), the portion of Russian Empire bordering the Black Sea (in modern days it constitutes southern regions of Ukraine).

title: 1823

text: March 22 – Greece receives autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in the London Protocol, signed by Russia, France and Britain, effectively ending the Greek War of Independence. Greece continues to seek full independence through diplomatic negotiations with the three Great Powers.

title: 1829

text: July 13 – Russian imperial officials in Wallachia adopt Regulamentul Organic, introducing a period of unprecedented reforms that provide for Westernization of this region of Romania.

title: 1831

text: July 8 – The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi creates an alliance between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire.

title: 1833

text: October 30 – The Tsarskoye Selo Railway, the first in the Russian Empire, opens between Saint Petersburg Tsarskoselsky station and Tsarskoye Selo (modern-day Pushkin), engineered by Franz Anton von Gerstner.

title: 1837

text: The United Kingdom, backed by the Russian Empire and the Austrian Empire, compels July Monarchy France to abandon Muhammad Ali of Egypt, and forces him to return Syria and Arabia to the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1839

text: July 15 – The Austrian Empire, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Prussia and the Russian Empire sign the Convention of London with the Sublime Porte, ruler of the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1840

text: December 20 – The first multilateral treaty for the suppression of the African slave trade, the Treaty for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade, signed in London by the representatives of Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and Russia.

title: 1841

text: May 22 – The Georgian province of Guria revolts against the Russian Empire.

title: 1841

text: The Russian Empire changes its flag.

title: 1858

text: May–July – Mahtra War: Peasants in the Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire revolt against ongoing serfdom, which was officially abolished in 1816.

title: 1858

text: May 28 - The Treaty of Aigun is signed by Yishan and Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky on behalf of the Qing Dynasty and the Russian Empire.

title: 1858

text: The Russian Empire has c. 1250 mi km of railroads.

title: 1860

text: March 3 (February 19 O.S.) – Emancipation reform of 1861: Alexander II abolishes serfdom in the Russian Empire.

title: 1861

text: July 30 – Valuev Circular bans the publication of religious, educational and training books in Ukrainian in the Russian Empire.

title: 1863

text: November 20 – The judicial reform of Alexander II is launched in the Russian Empire.

title: 1864

text: The League of the Three Emperors is created. It links the conservative monarchs of Austria-Hungary, the German Empire and the Russian Empire in an alliance against radical movements.

title: 1873

text: May 30 – The Ems Ukaz, a secret decree, is issued by Tsar Alexander II of Russia in the German city of Bad Ems, aimed at stopping the printing and distribution of Ukrainian-language publications in the Russian Empire.

title: 1876

text: April 24 – Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878): Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1877

text: March 3 (February 19 O.S.) – Treaty of San Stefano signed between the Russian and Ottoman Empires following Russian victory in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) provides for establishment of an autonomous Principality of Bulgaria (although not as large as originally envisaged). Russia however regards the treaty as a preliminary one only, refusing on March 25 a British proposal to lay it before a European congress, and matters are finally settled in July's Treaty of Berlin.

title: 1878

text: October 2 – Qing dynasty China signs the Treaty of Livadia with the Russian Empire.

title: 1879

text: December 25–27 – The Warsaw pogrom is carried out in Vistula Land, Russian Empire.

title: 1881

text: February 24 (February 12 Old Style) – Qing dynasty China signs the Treaty of Saint Petersburg with the Russian Empire providing for the return to China of the eastern part of the Ili Basin.

title: 1881

text: March 30 – The Battle for Kushka triggers the Panjdeh Incident, which nearly gives rise to war between the British Empire and Russian Empire.

title: 1885

text: March 23 – Tchaikovsky’s Manfred symphony premieres in Moscow, Russia.

title: 1886

text: January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire.

title: 1894

text: May 9 – Thirteen workers are killed by soldiers of the Russian Empire during the Yaroslavl Great Manufacture strike.

title: 1895

text: May 21 – The Chinese province of Manchuria is invaded by the Russian Empire.

title: 1900

text: March 1 – The United Kingdom, Germany and Japan protest the Sino-Russian agreement on Manchuria.

title: 1901

text: December 17 – The Commercial Telegraph Agency (TTA, Torgovo-Telegrafnue Agenstvo), predecessor of TASS, is officially established under the Ministry of Finance at Saint Petersburg in the Russian Empire.

title: 1902

text: April 19–21 (April 6–8 O.S.) – The first Kishinev pogrom, beginning on Easter Day, takes place in Kishinev, capital of the Bessarabia Governorate of the Russian Empire. At least 47 Jews are killed during mob rioting encouraged by blood libel articles in the press and led by priests.

title: 1903

text: May 15 – Russo-Japanese War: Russian minelayer Amur lays a minefield about 15 mi km off Port Arthur, and sinks Japan's battleships Hatsuse, 15,000 tons with 496 crew, and Yashima. On the same day, the Japanese protected cruiser Yoshino sinks after being accidentally rammed by the armored cruiser Kasuga, killing over 270 crew, including Captain Sayegi and his second-in-command, Commander Hirowateri. Japan will keep the loss of Yashima secret for over a year.

title: 1904

text: October 29 (October 16 O.S.) – In the Russian Empire:

title: 1905

text: September 5 – Russo-Japanese War: Treaty of Portsmouth – In New Hampshire, a treaty mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt is signed by Japan and Russia. Russia cedes the island of Sakhalin together with port and rail rights in Manchuria to Japan.

title: 1905

text: April 23 – In the Russian Empire, the Fundamental Laws are announced at the first state Duma.

title: 1906

text: June 30 (June 17 OS) – The Tunguska event near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Siberia, Russian Empire, is believed to have been caused by the air burst of a large meteoroid or comet fragment, at an altitude of 5 – 10 above the Earth's surface.

title: 1908

text: July 16 – A revolution forces Mohammad Ali Shah of the Qajar dynasty to abdicate in favor of his son Ahmad Shah Qajar. He proceeds to leave Persia for the Russian Empire, reportedly seeking the assistance of Nicholas II of Russia in regaining the throne.

title: 1909

text: September 18 – Pyotr Stolypin, third Prime Minister of the Russian Empire is assassinated in Kiev by Leftist revolutionary Dmitry Bogrov and is succeeded by Count Vladimir Kokovtsov.

title: 1911

text: The House of Romanov celebrates the 300th anniversary of its succession to the throne, amidst an outpouring of monarchist sentiment in Russia.

title: 1913

text: August 1 – The German Empire declares war on the Russian Empire, following Russia's military mobilisation in support of Serbia; Germany also begins mobilisation.

title: 1914

text: London Agreement: No member of the Triple Entente (Britain, France, or Russia) may seek a separate peace with the Central Powers.

title: 1914

text: Constantinople Agreement: Britain, France and the Russian Empire agree to give Constantinople (Istanbul) and the Bosphorus to Russia in case of victory (the treaty is later nullified by the Bolshevik Revolution).

title: 1915

text: October 14 – Perm State University is founded in Russia.

title: 1916

text: December 6 – The Senate of Finland officially declares the country's independence from Russia.

title: 1917


slug: russian-orthodox-church

label: Russian Orthodox Church

description: autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church

date: February 12

text: February 12 – Alexius, Metropolitan of Kiev and spiritual leader of the Russian Orthodox Church since 1354, dies of old age and his designated successor, Cyprian, Metropolitan of Lithuania, attempts to become the new leader. However, Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow denies Cyprian permission and appoints Pimen as successor to Alexius.

title: 1378

date: June

text: June – The "Miracle of the Moose" takes place, according to Russian hagiographers.

title: 1439

section: Events › April–June

section: Religion & Belief

date: March 19

text: March 19 – Isidore of Kiev, the Russian Orthodox Church Metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia, returns to his home in Moscow after having attended the Council of Florence, where he agreed to unify the Russian Church with the Roman Catholic Church. When he arrives, he is arrested on the order of Grand Prince Vasily II and imprisoned under minimum security.

title: 1441

date: December 15

text: December 15 – Jonas, a Russian bishop, is installed by the Council of Russian Bishops in Moscow, as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus. The event marks the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church because the election of Jonas is made without the approval of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople as this is without the consent of the Patriarch of Constantinople, it signifies the beginning of an effectively independent church structure in the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

title: 1448

date: May 3

text: May 3 – Theodosius Byvaltsev is installed as the new leader of the Russian Orthodox Church as Metropolitan of Moscow and all the Russias by order of Vasily II Vasilyevich, Grand Prince of Moscow.

title: 1461

date: November 11

text: November 11 – Filip I is appointed by the Grand Duke of Moscow as the new List of metropolitans and patriarchs of Moscow, leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, after the September 13 death of the Patriarch Theodosius.

title: 1464

date: June 29

text: June 29 – Gerontius, Bishop of Kolomna is appointed as the new Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church.

title: 1473

date: December 12

text: December 12 – A sobor (church council) of the Russian Orthodox Church deposes Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, but accepts his liturgical reforms. Dissenters from these, known as Old Believers, continue into the 21st century.

title: 1666

date: February 27

text: February 27 (February 17 O.S.) – Joasaphus II is elected by the Council of Bishops as the new Patriarch of Moscow, leader of the Russian Orthodox Church, after conservative clerics depose Patriarch Nikon for his reformation of the Church.

title: 1667

section: Culture & Society

date: June 28

text: June 28 – At the age of 15, Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Empress of Russia, is received into the Russian Orthodox Church after converting from the Lutheran faith. Upon her conversion to the Russian Orthodox religion, she is given the name Yekaterina (Catherine). In 1762, she takes the throne as the Empress Catherine II, later known as Catherine the Great.

title: 1744

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: December 4

text: December 4 – Less than six months after becoming Russia's Empress, Catherine the Great announces that almost all foreigners are welcome to travel to and settle in Russia, and waives previous requirements that new residents must be members of the Russian Orthodox Church; however, the manifesto adds the phrase kromye Zhydov - "except the Jews".

title: 1762

text: Nikephoros Theotokis starts introducing Edinoverie, an attempt to integrate the Old Believers into Russia's established church.

title: 1780

date: June 7

text: June 7 – Metropolitan Alexy of Moscow is elected Russian Orthodox Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'.

title: 1990

section: Events › June

date: August 14

text: August 14 – Tsar Nicholas II and his family are canonized by the synod of the Russian Orthodox Church.

title: 2000

section: Events › August

date: February 11

text: February 11 – The Catholic Church establishes four new dioceses in Russia, prompting backlash from the Russian Orthodox Church.

title: 2002

section: Events › February

date: February 1

text: February 1 – Patriarch Kirill of Moscow is enthroned as the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church following the death of his predecessor, Alexy II in 2008.

title: 2009

text: February 12 – Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill sign an Ecumenical Declaration in the first such meeting between leaders of the Catholic and Russian Orthodox Churches since their schism in 1054.

title: 2016

text: January 5 – Bartholomew I of Constantinople issues a formal decree granting independence to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine from the Russian Orthodox Church.

title: 2019

section: Events › January


slug: rwanda

label: Rwanda

description: country in East Africa

section: Conflict & Security

date: November 1

text: November 1 – In Rwanda, Hutu politician Dominique Mbonyumutwa is beaten up by Tutsi forces, leading to a period of violence known as the wind of destruction.

title: 1959

section: Events › November

section: Technology & Infrastructure

date: November 4

text: November 4–5 – In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mercenaries of Jean Schramme and Jerry Puren withdraw from Bukavu, over the Shangugu Bridge, to Rwanda.

title: 1967

section: Crime & Justice

date: December 27

text: December 27 – American naturalist Dian Fossey is found brutally murdered in Rwanda.

title: 1985

section: Events › December

date: October 1

text: October 1 – The rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front invades Rwanda from Uganda, marking the start of the Rwandan Civil War.

title: 1990

section: Events › October

date: September 1

text: September 1–10 – Pope John Paul II visits Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda and Ivory Coast.

title: 1990

section: Events › September

date: April 21

text: April 21 – The Red Cross estimates that hundreds of thousands of Tutsi have been killed in Rwanda.

title: 1994

section: Events › April

date: April 6

text: April 6 – Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundi President Cyprien Ntaryamira die when a missile shoots down their jet near Kigali, Rwanda. This is taken as a pretext to begin the Rwandan genocide.

title: 1994

date: April 7

text: April 7 – The Rwandan genocide begins in Kigali, Rwanda.

title: 1994

date: April 24

text: April 24 – Rwanda executes 22 Hutus, including Froduald Karamira, for their roles in the 1994 genocide.

title: 1998

date: September 2

text: September 2 – A United Nations court finds Jean-Paul Akayesu, the former mayor of a small town in Rwanda, guilty of nine counts of genocide, marking the first time that the 1948 law banning genocide is enforced.

title: 1998

date: May 16

text: May 16 – Félicien Kabuga, a Rwandan businessman responsible for supporting the Rwandan genocide, is arrested in Asnières-sur-Seine, France, after 26 years as a fugitive.

title: 2020

section: Events › May

date: June 27

text: June 27 – The U.S., with Qatari support, brokers a preliminary peace treaty between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, ending their armed conflict that started in 2022.

title: 2025


slug: saaremaa

label: Saaremaa

description: largest island in Estonia

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Olaf Haraldsson, future king of Norway, makes raids in the Baltic Sea. He lands on the Estonian island of Saaremaa, wins a battle there, and forces the inhabitants to pay tribute.

title: 1008

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: King Valdemar II ("the Conqueror") and Archbishop Andreas Sunonis raid Saaremaa Island (modern Estonia), forcing the islanders to submit. The Danes build a fortress, but finding no volunteers to man it, they burn it down themselves and leave the island.

title: 1206

text: Livonian Crusade – The Danish fail in their attempt to conquer Saaremaa Island from the Estonians.

title: 1222

text: Livonian Crusade: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword defeat the Estonians and reconquer the captured strongholds on the Estonian mainland. With the surrender of the Tartu stronghold, only the islands of Saaremaa and Muhu remain under Estonian control.

title: 1224

text: Spring – Livonian Crusade: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword and their Crusader allies (some 20,000 men) cross the sea ice from mainland Estonia, and defeat the last Estonian strongholds in the Battle of Muhu and the siege of the Valjala Stronghold in the Saaremaa islands. This marks the end of the Estonian campaign in the Livonian Crusade. The Sword Brothers conquer Danish Estonia, and Tallinn is given town rights under Riga law.

title: 1227

text: Livonian Crusade: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword are absorbed into the Teutonic Order, as the autonomous Livonian Order. An Estonian rebellion begins on Saaremaa Island (located in the Baltic Sea).

title: 1237

text: Livonian Crusade: The Estonian rebellion of 1237 is suppressed on Saaremaa Island, by the Livonian Order.

title: 1241

section: Events

date: July 13

text: July 13 – Livonian Crusade: The Baltic Samogitians and Curonians of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania decisively defeat the Livonian Order in the Battle of Durbe. This leads the Estonians of Saaremaa Island to once again rebel against the Livonian Order.

title: 1260

date: April 23

text: April 23 – The St. George's Night Uprising: The Livonian Order hangs Vesse, the rebel Estonian Elder of Saaremaa Island.

title: 1344

section: Events › January–December

date: August 23

text: August 23 (August 13 Old Style) – The Treaty of Brömsebro is signed between Sweden and Denmark–Norway, ending the Torstenson War and ceding Jemtland, Herjedalen, Gotland and Ösel (Saaremaa) to Sweden, which also holds the province of Halland for a period of 30 years, as a guarantee.

title: 1645

section: Events › July–September

date: July 27

text: July 27 – A causeway is opened between the islands of Saaremaa and Muhu in Estonia.

title: 1896

section: Events › July

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: December 5

text: December 5 – Estonian War of Independence: The British light cruiser strikes a mine and sinks near Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea, killing 11 sailors.

title: 1918

date: February 16

text: February 16–21 – Estonian War of Independence: Uniformed peasants in Saaremaa rebel against the government of Estonia; the rebellion is crushed by government forces, leaving more than 200 dead.

title: 1919


slug: safavid-dynasty

label: Safavid dynasty

description: dynasty from Safi-ad-din Ardabili generation and ruler of Safavid Iran (1501–1736)

section: Births

date: July 17

text: July 17 – Ismail I, Shah of Persia (d. 1524)

title: 1487

section: Religion & Belief

date: December 22

text: December 22 – (1 Jumada al-Thani 907 AH) Ismail I is enthroned as the first Shah of Iran, choosing Tabriz as his capital, founding the Safavid dynasty in northern Iran. He declares Shi'ism the official and compulsory religion, under penalty of death.

title: 1501

section: Events › October–December

date: November 7

text: November 7 – Ismail I founds the Safavid dynasty and proclaims himself the Shah of Iran after defeating tribes of the Aq Qoyunlu confederation.

title: 1502

section: Deaths

date: May 23

text: May 23 – Ismail I, Safavid dynasty Shah of Persia (b. 1487)

title: 1524

date: December 4

text: December 4 – The Ottoman army under Suleiman the Magnificent captures the city of Baghdad from the Safavids without a struggle, beginning almost 400 years of Ottoman rule of what is now Iraq.

title: 1534

date: March 15

text: March 15 – English merchant Anthony Jenkinson has an audience with Ivan the Terrible in Moscow, before departing the city on April 27 and continuing his second expedition through the Grand Duchy of Moscow to Qazvin, capital of the Safavid dynasty in Persia.

title: 1562

section: Events › January–March

date: January 27

text: January 27 – Abbas I of Safavid, Shah of Iran (d. 1629)

title: 1571

date: February 12

text: February 12 – Mohammad Khodabanda, older brother of the late Shah Ismail II, begins his reign as the new Shah of Persia (now Iran) after entering the Persian capital at Qazvin, after removing his sister Pari Khan Khanum, who had exercised regal authority after Ismail's death. His first act as ruler is to have Pari Khan Khanum strangled to death.

title: 1578

date: June

text: June – Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18): Shāh Abbas I of Persia's Safavid army captures the city of Yerevan from the Ottoman Empire after a siege. At this time the Shāh begins the expulsion of Armenians from Jolfa to New Julfa in his capital of Isfahan; more than 25,000 die during the exodus.

title: 1604

section: Events › April–June

text: Easter – Persian Safavid hordes, led by Shah Abbas the Great, kill all the monks at the David Gareja monastery complex in Georgia, and set fire to its collection of manuscripts and works of art.

title: 1615

section: Events › Date unknown

text: Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns occur as progressive combats. Abbas I of Persia captures Tbilisi following a conflict with the Georgian soldiers and the general populace. After the capture of Tbilisi, Abbas I confronts an Ottoman army. The battle takes place near Lake Gökçe, and results in a Safavid victory.

title: 1616

date: March 22

text: March 22 – Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his sons capture the city of Kandahar from the Safavids.

title: 1638

section: Climate & Environment

date: June 4

text: June 4 – A 6.4 magnitude earthquake in Armenia strikes near Yerevan, at the time part of the Persian Empire.

title: 1679

date: August 6

text: August 6 – The coronation of Sultan Husayn of the Safavid dynasty as the Shah of Persia takes place in Isfahan, eight days after the death of his father Suleiman I.

title: 1694

text: April 21 – Mirwais Hotak takes control of Kandahar (in Afghanistan) by murdering the Persian governor, Gurgin Khan, known also as George XI.

title: 1709

date: March 8

text: March 8 – Battle of Gulnabad in Persia: The Pashtun people of Afghanistan, led by Mahmud Hotak, decisively defeat forces of the Persian Safavid dynasty, precipitating its fall.

title: 1722

date: October 23

text: October 23 – The six-month-long Siege of Isfahan ends, when the Safavid capital Isfahan capitulates to the Afghan rebels. Safavid Sultan Husayn abdicates, and acknowledges Mahmud Hotak as the new Shah of Persia.

title: 1722

date: December 30

text: December 30 – Mir Sayyid Muhammad, a grandson of the Shah Suleiman I of Persia, overthrows Shahrokh Shah to become the Shah of Persia, and briefly restores the Safavid dynasty as Suleiman II; his reign ends less than three months later, on March 20, when Kurdish tribesmen restore Shahrokh to the throne.

title: 1749


slug: safavid-empire

label: Safavid Empire

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: March 21

text: March 21 – The Treaty of Constantinople is signed between the Ottoman Empire (in modern-day Turkey) and the Safavid Empire (modern-day Iran), ending a 12-year war between the two nations.

title: 1590

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Safavid Empire of Persia and the Spanish Empire conclude a defensive alliance and declare war on the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1602

date: November 20

text: November 20 – The Treaty of Nasuh Pasha is signed, between the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and the Safavid Empire (Iran), with the Ottomans ceding back land they had captured from the Safavids after 1555, in return for Safavid payment of 200 loads of silk.

title: 1612

date: January 14

text: January 14 – After 90 years of Ottoman occupation, Baghdad is recaptured by the Safavid Empire.

title: 1624

date: July 1

text: July 1 – The Safavid Empire in Iran defeats an invasion from the Kingdom of Georgia in the Battle of Marabda with heavy losses on both sides, including the Georgian commander, Teimuraz I, Prince of Mukhrani. when the Iranian Safavid army defeated a Georgian force.

title: 1625

date: September 29

text: September 29 – In India, the third and final attempt by the Mughal Empire, to recapture the city of Kandahar from the Safavid Empire, ends in failure after almost six months despite the presence of 70,000 Mughal soldiers under the command of Prince Dara Shukoh.

title: 1653

date: December 8

text: December 8 – Fath-Ali Khan Daghestani is deposed from his position as Grand Vizier of Iran (at this time, part of the Safavid Empire) and tortured by Mohammadqoli Khan, the bodyguard of the Safavid Shah, Sultan Husayn.

title: 1720

date: August 18

text: August 18 – The Sack of Shamakhi occurs, in the Persian Safavid Empire.

title: 1721

section: Events › July –September


slug: safavid-iran

label: Safavid Iran

description: historical empire that existed between 1501 and 1736

date: September 7

text: September 7 – The Ottoman Army, commanded by the Sultan Selim I, arrives at Tabriz, capital of Safavid Iran and accepts the surrender of Shah Ismail.

title: 1514

date: May 23

text: May 23 – Tahmasp I becomes the ruler of the Safavid Empire, following the death of his father, Shah Ismail I.

title: 1524

date: July 5

text: July 5 – General Div Sultan Rumlu, the regent for the 13-year old Tahmasp I, the Safavid Shah of Iran, is assassinated and replaced by Chukha Sultan Tekali.

title: 1527

date: June 11

text: June 11 – Suleiman the Magnificent, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire begins an invasion of Safavid Iran that will last for almost two years before he abandons it.

title: 1548

date: December 21

text: December 21 – Ottoman Empire Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent abandons his campaign against Safavid Iran after 21 months, during which he was unable to proceed further than Tabriz.

title: 1549

date: April 3

text: April 3 – In Qazvin, the Shah of Iran Tahmasp I, becomes enraged with the sexual orientation of his son Ismail II, and sends Ismail to Afghanistan to serve as the Iranian governor of Herat province.

title: 1556

date: May 14

text: May 14 – Tahmasp I, the Shah of Safavid Iran for almost 52 years, is accidentally poisoned after being treated by the palace physician, Abu Naser Gilani. Tahmasp's death is followed by a deadly struggle for control of Iran.

title: 1576

date: September 1

text: September 1 – Ismail Mirza, who has proclaimed himself the Shah of Safavid Iran, marches into the capital at Qazvin and ascends the throne as Shah Ismail II.

title: 1576

date: June 21

text: June 21 (8 Cemazi ul-evvel 988 AH) – England signs a commercial treaty with the Ottoman Empire, and Sultan Murad III sends a letter to Queen Elizabeth I informing her, "Just as the merchants of Poland and France and Venice come and go, the merchants of your domain also shall bring wares to our Well-Protected Domains and take away wares." In return, Murad III is able to purchase English metals (iron, brass and tin) for his war with Iran.

title: 1580

date: February 22

text: February 22 – The Mughal–Safavid War begins when Shah Abbas II of the Safavid Empire in Persia captures the Afghan city of Kandahar from the Mughal Empire of India after a six-week siege. The Mughals, led by Shah Jahan, fail to recapture Kandahar after three sieges in four years.

title: 1649

date: March 26

text: March 26 – Safavid occupation of Basra: Safavid government troops take control of Basra.

title: 1697

date: June 9

text: June 9 – Safavid troops retreat from Basra, ending a three-year occupation.

title: 1701

section: Events › January–June


slug: saint-boniface

label: Saint Boniface

description: 8th‑century Anglo‑Saxon bishop and missionary, Catholic saint and martyr, known as the ‘Apostle to the Germans’

text: Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary (approximate date)

title: 675

text: Boniface begins his education at an English Celtic Christian monastery, probably in Exeter near his birthplace and one of many monasteriola built by local landowners and churchmen.

title: 680

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary, leaves England and travels to Frisia (the western parts of the modern-day Netherlands) to assist Willibrord, bishop of Utrecht, in his work to convert the pagan Frisians.

title: 716

text: The Wessex-born missionary Boniface sets out for Frisia a second time. He travels to Rome, where Pope Gregory II sends him on a mission to convert the Saxons in Lower Saxony (modern-day Germany).

title: 718

date: November 30

text: November 30 – Wessex-born Boniface is ordained as bishop of Germany by Pope Gregory II. Under the protection of Charles Martel (mayor of the palace), he concentrates his religious work in Hessia and Thuringia.

title: 722

text: Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary, fells Thor's Oak (a sacred tree) near Fritzlar in Hesse, marking the decisive event in the Christianization of the northern Germanic tribes (approximate date).

title: 723

text: Pope Gregory III confers on Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary, the pallium as archbishop, with jurisdiction over Bavaria (modern Germany). He orders him to forbid the consumption of horseflesh by his Christian converts.

title: 732

text: Boniface visits Rome, and is made papal legate of the Frankish Kingdom. He establishes many bishoprics in Bavaria.

title: 738

text: Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary who has been Christianizing Bavaria, founds the bishoprics of Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, and Passau.

title: 739

text: Sturm, disciple of Boniface, establishes the Benedictine Abbey of Fulda (present-day Hesse) in Germany (or 744).

title: 742

text: The Concilium Germanicum: First major Church synod held in the eastern parts of the Frankish Kingdom. Organized by Carloman, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, and presided over by Saint Boniface, who is solidified in his position as leader of the Frankish church.

title: 743

text: King Æthelbert II of Kent sends a message to Boniface, archbishop of Mainz, requesting two well-trained goshawks for hunting. He had earlier made a gift of two falcons and a goshawk to King Æthelbald of Mercia (approximate date).

title: 748

section: Events › By place › Britain

text: King Æthelbald of Mercia calls the Synod of Gumley, at the instigation of Boniface, bishop of Mainz, and issues a charter that releases the Catholic Church from all public burdens.

title: 749

date: November

text: November – Pepin the Short, youngest son of Charles Martel, forces the last Merovingian king Childeric III to retire to the monastery of Saint-Bertin. He proclaims himself as king of the Franks with the support of Pope Zachary, and is crowned at Soissons by Boniface, bishop of Mainz, becoming, as Pepin III, the first Carolingian monarch of the Frankish Kingdom.

title: 751

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Eoban is appointed bishop of Utrecht (modern Netherlands), by the missionary bishop Boniface.

title: 753

date: June 5

text: June 5 – Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary, is killed by a band of pagans at Dokkum in Frisia, while reading the Scriptures to Christian converts. He is later buried in the Abbey of Fulda, entrusted to his Bavarian disciple Sturm.

title: 754

title: 754

text: Saxon Wars: Saxon forces seize upon Charlemagne's preoccupation with Italy to retake Eresburg and Syburg (near Dortmund). They unsuccessfully attack the episcopal centre of Büraburg, which had been established by St. Boniface (see 723).

title: 773

text: Saxon raiders destroy many churches deep in Frankish territory. The Benedictine monks of Fulda Abbey (modern-day Hesse) hurriedly carry the relics of Saint Boniface over the Rhön Mountains to safety.

title: 778

date: December 23

text: December 23 – King Conrad I, injured at one of his battles with Arnulf I (the Bad), dies at his residence in Weilburg Castle after a 7-year reign. On his deathbed Conrad persuades his younger brother Eberhard III to offer the East Frankish crown to Henry the Fowler, the duke of Saxony. Conrad is buried in Fulda Cathedral (also the burial place of Boniface) in Germany.

title: 918


slug: saint-peter

label: Saint Peter

description: apostle of Jesus Christ

year_label: 37 CE

text: Peter the Apostle founds the Church of Antioch (approximate date).

title: 30s

section: Events › 37 AD › Anatolia

year_label: 53 CE

text: Evodius succeeds Saint Peter as Patriarch of Antioch.

title: 50s

section: Events › 53 AD › Syria

year_label: 65 CE

text: The first Christian community in Africa is founded by Mark, a disciple of Peter.

title: AD 65

year_label: 67 CE

text: Apostles Peter and Paul are martyred in Rome (possible date).

title: AD 67

text: Linus succeeds Peter, as the second Bishop of Rome.

title: AD 67

year_label: 68 CE

text: Apostles Peter and Paul are martyred in Rome (latest possible date).

title: AD 68

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Construction begins on the first basilica of Saint Peter in Rome.

title: 356

text: Cædwalla of Wessex arrives in Rome and is baptised by pope Sergius I, taking the name Peter. He dies 10 days later and is buried at St. Peter's Basilica.

title: 689

date: November 1

text: November 1 – Synod of Rome: Gregory III summons a council at the shrine of Saint Peter. All western bishops participate, including the Roman nobility. Gregory condemns Iconoclasm as a heresy.

title: 731

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Lord Æthelred II and Lady Æthelflæd (a daughter of Alfred the Great) of the Mercians found the Priory of St. Oswald in Gloucester (probably originally dedicated to St. Peter).

title: 890

section: Events › By place › Europe › Britain

text: William I (the Pious) of Aquitaine, donates land in Burgundy for the building of a Benedictine monastery dedicated to the saints Peter and Paul. Hence the Abbey of Cluny, becomes the largest in the West. In the foundation charter, William renounces all rights to the monastery and nominates Berno as the first abbot of Cluny (Eastern France). He places the monastery directly under the control of the Papal See.

title: 910

date: August 21

text: August 21 – The Vatican announces that bones uncovered in its catacombs could be those of the apostle Peter; 19 years later, Pope Paul VI announces confirmation that the bones belong to this first pope.

title: 1949

section: Events › August


slug: saint-petersburg

label: Saint Petersburg

description: federal city and former capital of Russia

date: May 27

text: May 27 (May 16 OS) – The city of Saint Petersburg, Russia is founded, following Peter the Great's reconquest of Ingria from Sweden during the Great Northern War.

title: 1703

date: May 19

text: May 19 – Peter the Great moves the capital of Russia from Moscow to Saint Petersburg.

title: 1712

section: Events › April –June

date: June 22

text: June 22 – Tsar Peter the Great of Russia witnesses the attempt of 45 Dutch and English ships to enter the small harbour at Saint Petersburg and decides that additional harbours are necessary for Russia to be able import Western goods.

title: 1715

section: Deaths

date: September 26

text: September 26 – Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, eldest son of the Tsar Peter the Great and heir to the throne, flees from Saint Petersburg with his mistress, Efrosinya Fedorova, along with her brother and three servants. After spending more than a year in Austria, he returns to Russia where he is arrested and dies in prison in 1718.

title: 1716

section: Events › July–September

date: October 21

text: October 21 – The Red Canal is opened in the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg, after seven years of construction, at a ceremony in the presence of the Tsar Peter the Great.

title: 1719

section: Events › October–December

section: Culture & Society

date: August 15

text: August 15 – The Peterhof Palace is opened in a formal ceremony just outside Saint Petersburg, capital of the Russian Empire.

title: 1723

date: January 6

text: January 6 – Martin Spanberg and two other members of the First Kamchatka expedition arrive in Okhotsk, after a journey from Saint Petersburg of almost two years. After the end of winter, the 63-member group, commanded by Vitus Bering, proceeds to the Kamchatka River, to prepare for exploration of the Arctic.

title: 1727

section: Events › January–March

date: February 28

text: February 28 – Vitus Bering returns to the Russian capital of Saint Petersburg after completing the First Kamchatka expedition.

title: 1730

date: May 9

text: May 9 (April 28 O.S.) – The coronation of Anna of Russia as Empress of Russia takes place in Saint Petersburg.

title: 1730

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: August 12

text: August 12 – A fire in Saint Petersburg, capital of the Russian Empire, destroys 2,000 buildings, the city's post office, and several palaces.

title: 1736

date: September 11

text: September 11 – Russian noble Natalia Lopukhina is flogged in front of the Twelve Collegia building in Saint Petersburg, bringing a conclusion to the "Lopukhina Affair" plotted by France and the Duchy of Holstein.

title: 1743

text: September 1 – Catherine the Great marries Peter III of Russia, in Saint Petersburg.

title: 1745

date: March 31

text: March 31 – A mutual defense treaty between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia is signed in Saint Petersburg between representatives of Russia's Empress Catherine the Great and Prussia's King Frederick the Great. By agreement, each nation agrees (for an eight-year period) to commit 10,000 soldiers and 2,000 horses to the defense of the other in case of an attack, and secretly agree to maintain security within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

title: 1764

date: April 26

text: April 26 – At Saint Petersburg, German engineer Christian Kratzenstein presents to the Russian Academy of Sciences a perfected version of the arithmetical machine originally invented by Gottfried Leibniz. Kratzenstein claims that his machine solves the problem with the Leibniz machine has with calculations above four digits, perfecting the flaw where the machine is "prone to err whenever it is necessary to make a number of 9999 move to 10000", but the machine is not developed further.

title: 1765

section: Health & Medicine

date: April 4

text: April 4 – The first quarantines are started in Moscow and Saint Petersburg to fight the bubonic plague epidemic. Over the next 12 months, more than 52,000 people die from the plague in Moscow alone.

title: 1771

date: December 14

text: December 14 – Russian government offices reopen at Moscow and Saint Petersburg after being closed for 15 months because of an epidemic of bubonic plague.

title: 1772

date: September 24

text: September 24 – The Bolshoi Theatre company hosts its first annual opera season, with the opening of the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

title: 1776

section: Events › September–October

date: November 28

text: November 28 – A lightning strike in Saint Petersburg begins a fire that burns 11,000 homes.

title: 1780

text: Saint Petersburg, Russia has 300,000 inhabitants.

title: 1782

date: August 7

text: August 7 – Étienne Maurice Falconet's Bronze Horseman statue of Tsar Peter the Great is unveiled in Saint Petersburg.

title: 1782

date: December 26

text: December 26 (O.S.)/December 14 (N.S.) – Some Imperial Russian Army officers stage the Decembrist revolt against Nicholas's accession in Saint Petersburg, but it is thoroughly suppressed by the government.

title: 1825

date: December 30

text: December 30 – In Saint Petersburg, the Lehman Theater catches fire, killing 800 people.

title: 1836

date: December 17

text: December 17 – Fire breaks out in the Winter Palace, in Saint Petersburg, Russia killing 30 guards.

title: 1837

date: October 30

text: October 30 – The Tsarskoye Selo Railway, the first in the Russian Empire, opens between Saint Petersburg Tsarskoselsky station and Tsarskoye Selo (modern-day Pushkin), engineered by Franz Anton von Gerstner.

title: 1837

section: Religion & Belief

date: February 4

text: February 4 – German scholar Constantin von Tischendorf rediscovers the Codex Sinaiticus, a 4th-century uncial manuscript of the Greek Bible, in Saint Catherine's Monastery on the foot of Mount Sinai, in the Khedivate of Egypt and arranges for its presentation to his patron, Tsar Alexander II of Russia at Saint Petersburg.

title: 1859

text: Demonstration of an electric tram operated on Miller's line at Sestroretsk near Saint Petersburg in the Russian Empire by inventor Fyodor Pirotsky.

title: 1873

date: January 23

text: January 23 – Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria, marries Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, only daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia, in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg.

title: 1874

section: Events › January

section: Crime & Justice

date: January 24

text: January 24 – Russian revolutionary Vera Zasulich shoots at Fyodor Trepov, Governor of Saint Petersburg.

title: 1878

date: January 15

text: January 15 – Ballet The Sleeping Beauty, with music by Tchaikovsky, is premiered at the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia.

title: 1890

date: December 18

text: December 18 – The Nutcracker ballet, with music by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, is premiered at the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

title: 1892

section: Events › December

date: October 28

text: October 28 (October 16 O.S.) – In Saint Petersburg (Russia), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky conducts the first performance of his Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Pathétique, nine days before his death.

title: 1893

section: Events › October

date: November 26

text: November 26 – Wedding of Nicholas II of Russia and Alix of Hesse in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace at Saint Petersburg.

title: 1894

section: Events › November

date: October 11

text: October 11 – The Kubok Obschestva Velosipednoy Ezdy (Bicycle Riders Society Cup) first Grand Prix in Russia is staged with seven cars near Saint Petersburg, on a route from Alexandrovskaya to Strelna and back again for a total distance of 25 mi, and is won by Pavel Belyaev.

title: 1898

text: December 17 – The Commercial Telegraph Agency (TTA, Torgovo-Telegrafnue Agenstvo), predecessor of TASS, is officially established under the Ministry of Finance at Saint Petersburg in the Russian Empire.

title: 1902

text: January 22 (January 9 O.S.) – The Bloody Sunday massacre of peaceful Russian demonstrators at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg takes place, leading to an unsuccessful uprising.

title: 1905

text: August 31 – Count Alexander Izvolsky and Sir Arthur Nicolson sign the Anglo-Russian Entente in Saint Petersburg, bringing a pause in The Great Game in Central Asia, and establishing the Triple Entente.

title: 1907

text: February 23 – Joseph Stalin is arrested by the Russian secret police, the Okhrana, in Petrograd, and exiled to Siberia.

title: 1913

text: December 30 – (December 17 Old Style) – The mystic Grigori Rasputin is murdered in Saint Petersburg.

title: 1916

text: July 19–August 7 – The Second Congress of the Communist International takes place in Saint Petersburg and Moscow; the Twenty-one Conditions are adopted.

title: 1920

text: January 26 – Petrograd in the Soviet Union is renamed Leningrad; it will revert to Saint Petersburg in 1991.

title: 1924

text: September 8 – WWII: Siege of Leningrad – German forces begin a siege against the Soviet Union's second-largest city, Leningrad. Stalin orders the Volga Germans deported to Siberia.

title: 1941

text: July 2 — The cremated remains of Mary Reeser are found at her home in Saint Petersburg, Florida. She is believed to have been a victim of spontaneous human combustion. The FBI believes that the near total consumption of her body by the fire was caused by the Wick effect.

title: 1951

text: July 17 – In Saint Petersburg, Nicholas II of Russia and his family are buried in St. Catherine Chapel, 80 years after he and his family were killed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

title: 1998

text: October 31 – Metrojet Flight 9268, an Airbus A321 airliner en route to Saint Petersburg from Sharm el-Sheikh, crashes near Al-Hasana in Sinai, killing all 217 passengers and 7 crew members on board. Later investigations revealed a bomb was likely responsible for the crash with Islamic State being the primary suspect. *

title: 2015


slug: saint

label: Saint

description: person who has been recognized for having an exceptional degree of holiness, sanctity, and virtue; may or may not be a canonised saint

text: Forty-eight Christians are martyred in Lyon (Saint Blandina and Pothinus, bishop of Lyon, are among them).

title: AD 177

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Births

text: Paula, Desert Mother and Saint (d. 404)

title: 347

date: May 4

text: May 4 – Venerius, bishop of Milan and Saint

title: 408

text: Peter the Iberian, Georgian theologian and Saint (approximate date)

title: 417

text: John the Silent, bishop and Saint (died 558)

title: 452

date: March 11

text: March 11 – English Roman Catholic priest, Thomas Atkinson, is hanged, drawn, and quartered at York, at age 70 (he will be beatified by Pope John Paul II on November 22, 1987).

title: 1616

section: Events › March-April

date: February 24

text: February 24 – Fyodor Ushakov, a Russian Saint and Admiral (d. 1817)

title: 1745

date: January 5

text: January 5 – John Neumann, Saint and Roman Catholic Bishop of Philadelphia (b. 1811)

title: 1860

section: Deaths › January–June


slug: saints-cyril-and-methodius

label: Saints Cyril and Methodius

text: Methodius, Byzantine missionary and bishop (d. 885)

title: 815

text: Cyril, Byzantine missionary and bishop (d. 885)

title: 826

text: Cyril, Byzantine missionary and bishop (d. 869)

title: 827

text: The Slavic alphabet is created by Saints Cyril and Methodius.

title: 855

section: Events › By topic › Religion

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius arrive in Khazaria.

title: 860

text: Constantine the Philosopher (alias Saint Cyril) invents the 42-letter Slavonic alphabet (Cyrillic script) as a tool for converting the Moravians to Christianity (approximate date).

title: 862

text: The Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius arrive with a few disciples in Moravia, by request of Prince Rastislav.

title: 863

section: Deaths

date: February 14

text: February 14 – Cyril, Byzantine missionary and bishop

title: 869

text: Pope John VIII issues the bull Industriae Tuae, creating an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia, with archbishop Methodius as its head. Old Church Slavonic is recognized as the fourth liturgical language, besides Latin, Greek and Hebrew.

title: 880

date: April 6

text: April 6 – Methodius, Byzantine missionary and bishop (b. 815)

title: 885

text: The Glagolitic alphabet, devised by Cyril and Methodius, missionaries from Constantinople, is adopted in the Bulgarian Empire.

title: 886


slug: saladin

label: Saladin

description: Sultan of Egypt and founder of the Ayyubid dynasty (1137–1193)

text: Summer – Imad al-Din Zengi, Seljuk governor (atabeg) of Aleppo and Mosul, marches on Baghdad (the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate), to add it to his dominions. He is defeated by the forces of Caliph Al-Mustarshid, near Tikrit (modern Iraq). Zengi flees and escapes, with the help of Tikrit's governor Najm ad-Din Ayyub (the father of Saladin), who conveys him across the River Tigris.

title: 1132

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: Saladin (the Lion), sultan of Egypt and Syria (d. 1193)

title: 1137

title: 1138

section: Conflict & Security

text: Spring – Saladin accompanies his uncle, General Shirkuh, with an army sent to the Fatimid Caliphate (modern Egypt) by Nur al-Din, ruler (atabeg) of Syria.

title: 1164

date: March 18

text: March 18 – Battle of Al-Babein: A second Zangid army (some 12,000 men) under General Shirkuh and his nephew Saladin marches towards Egypt, but is met by the combined Crusader-Fatimid forces led by King Amalric of Jerusalem. After skirmishing down the Nile, the Crusaders are defeated near Giza and forced to retreat to Cairo.

title: 1167

section: Events › By place › Egypt

text: Spring – A Zangid expedition under General Shirkuh accompanied by his nephew Saladin invades Egypt. King Amalric I of Jerusalem orders his fleet to return to Acre and retreats with the Crusaders back to Palestine.

title: 1169

text: Winter – Egyptian forces, led by Saladin, invade the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and besiege Darum on the Mediterranean coast. Its defenses are weak, and though Saladin has no siege engines with him, the fall seems imminent. King Amalric I withdraws his Templar garrison from Gaza, to assist him in defending Darum. Saladin raises the siege and marches on Gaza, where he captures the lower town (despite the stiff resistance ordered by Lord Miles of Plancy), and massacres the inhabitants. However, the citadel is too strong for Saladin, and he is forced to retreat to Egypt.

title: 1170

text: Al-Aziz Uthman, Egyptian ruler and son of Saladin (d. 1198)

title: 1171

date: September 13

text: September 13 – Caliph Al-Adid dies of natural causes (or poisoning) after a 11-year reign. Saladin overthrows the Fatimid Caliphate, and takes over as governor (atabeg) of Egypt – ruling in the name of Emir Nur al-Din.

title: 1171

text: Winter – The Nubians are engaged in a series of skirmishes along the frontier in Upper Egypt. A force of Kurdish troops under Turan-Shah, a brother of Saladin, attack the Nubians. He installs a garrison in Qasr Ibrim.

title: 1172

text: Summer – Saladin leads an expeditionary army against the Bedouin tribes in Oultrejordain to secure a route between Egypt and Syria. He raids the region at Kerak Castle.

title: 1173

date: August 9

text: August 9 – Najm ad-Din Ayyub, father of Saladin

title: 1173

date: February

text: February – Saladin's brother Turan-Shah sails with an army and supporting fleet to conquer the Hejaz and Yemen.

title: 1174

date: March 31

text: March 31 – A conspiracy against Saladin, aiming to restore the Fatimid Caliphate, is revealed in Cairo, involving senior figures of the former Fatimid regime and the poet Umara al-Yamani. Modern historians doubt the extent and danger of the conspiracy reported in official sources, but its ringleaders will be publicly executed over the following weeks.

title: 1174

date: May 15

text: May 15 – Nur al-Din, Seljuk ruler (atabeg) of Syria, dies at Damascus after a 28-year reign. He is succeeded by his 11-year-old son As-Salih Ismail al-Malik. Meanwhile, Saladin declares himself his regent and vassal.

title: 1174

date: May 22

text: May 22 – A group of Isma'ili Assassins gains access into Saladin's camp and attempts to kill him during the siege of Aleppo. But his bodyguard saves his life, the others are slain while trying to escape.

title: 1175

text: Spring – Saladin defeats the Zangid forces before Damascus and marries Nur al-Din's widow Asimat. On June 24 he accepts a truce and is recognized as the sovereign over Syria.

title: 1176

text: The union of Egypt and Syria under Sultan Saladin Yusuf ibn Ayyub, the foundation of the Ayyubid Sultanate.

title: 1177

section: Events › Date unknown

date: November 25

text: November 25 – Battle of Montgisard: Baldwin IV of Jerusalem and Raynald of Chatillon defeat Saladin.

title: 1177

section: Events › January–December

date: June 10

text: June 10 – Battle of Marj Ayyun: A Crusader army (some 10,000 men) led by Baldwin IV is defeated by Muslim forces under Saladin near the Litani River (modern Lebanon). The Knights Templar join the battle, but they are driven back in confusion. Baldwin narrowly escapes being captured in the route. Amongst Saladin's prisoners are Odo de St. Amand, Grand Master of the Templars, and Lord Baldwin of Ibelin.

title: 1179

section: Climate & Environment

text: Summer – King Baldwin IV (known as "the Leper") sends envoys to Saladin proposing a peace treaty. Due to a severe drought, much of Syria is afflicted by famine, prompting Saladin to agree to a two-year truce. Although Raymond III of Tripoli initially denounces the agreement, he is forced to accept it following an Ayyubid naval raid on the port city of Tartus.

title: 1180

text: Summer – Raynald of Châtillon, lord of Oultrejordain, raids Saladin's territory, reaching as far as Tabuk (modern Saudi Arabia) on the route between Damascus and Mecca. In November, Saladin sends an expedition under his nephew, Farrukh Shah, who invades Oultrejordain. Raynald of Châtillon is forced to withdraw home. Saladin complains to King Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (the Leper) for breaking the treaty (see 1180) and demands compensation.

title: 1181

section: Events › Europe › Levant

text: Farrukh Shah, Ayyubid ruler and nephew of Saladin

title: 1182

date: May 11

text: May 11 – Saladin leads an Egyptian expeditionary force from Cairo to Syria. In June, he arrives in Damascus and learns that his nephew Farrukh Shah has raided Galilee, and sacked the villages near Mount Tabor. On his way back, Farrukh Shah attacks the fortress of Habis Jaldak, carved out of the rock above the River Yarmuk. The garrison, Christian Syrians with no great wish to die for the Crusaders, promptly surrenders.

title: 1182

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Saladin conquers Syria and becomes sultan.

title: 1183

section: Events › By area › Asia › Near East

text: Saladin sends his nephew Izz al-Din Usama, governor (emir) of the iron-rich mountains near Beirut, to build Ajloun Castle, which controls the trade along the road between Damascus and Egypt.

title: 1184

text: Saladin agrees to a 4-year truce due to severe drought and famine which has struck Palestine. The treaty is signed by Count Raymond of Tripoli and important nobles from Jerusalem. Commerce is renewed between the Crusader States and their Muslim neighbors. A flow of corn from the east saves the Crusaders and the population from starvation.

title: 1185

date: January 26

text: January 26 – Ismat ad-Din Khatun, wife of Saladin

title: 1186

text: Spring – The Crusaders under Raynald of Châtillon attack a large Muslim caravan, including members of Saladin's family, journeying from Cairo. Raynald takes the merchants, and their families with all their possessions to his castle of Kerak. Saladin demands the release of the prisoners and compensation for their losses. This is refused by Raynald, who pays no attention to his order.

title: 1187

date: March 27

text: March 27 – Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) holds a Diet at Mainz and takes the Cross, followed by his 21-year-old son, Frederick IV, and other German nobles. He sends a delegation to present an ultimatum to Saladin in Syria on May 26. With demands to withdraw his Muslim forces from Palestina and to return the True Cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

title: 1188

section: Events › By place › Europe

date: May

text: May – Saladin has reconquered the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem except for Tyre. The castles of Montréal and Kerak are captured by Muslim forces. In the north, Saladin has regained the Principality of Antioch except for Antioch and the castle of Al-Qusayr in Syria.

title: 1189

date: April

text: April – After a long siege Muslim forces under Saladin capture Beaufort Castle from Reginald of Sidon who has offered to hand over the castle to Saladin on the condition that he has three months to remove his family to a place of safety. At the end of the three months, Saladin expects the castle to be handed over but finds that Reginald has used the time to strengthen the castle against a siege. He is imprisoned at Damascus – the castle's garrison finally surrenders in return for Reginald's release.

title: 1190

section: Events › By place › Third Crusade

date: February 13

text: February 13 – Muslim forces attack and succeed in breaking the siege lines around Acre. Though the Crusaders seal the breach, Saladin is able to replenish the garrison, by sending reinforcements. For the defenders, this is a temporary respite – and Saladin is having difficulty keeping his army together. Taqi al-Din, Saladin's nephew and one of his most effective commanders, fails to rejoin the siege. He divides his army for his own territorial ambitions in modern southeastern Turkey. Later in the spring, Taqi al-Din brings his forces to support the double-siege at Acre.

title: 1191

date: August 5

text: August 5 – Battle of Jaffa: Richard I of England defeats the forces of Saladin and ends hostilities, paving the way for a truce.

title: 1192

section: Events › The Third Crusade

date: March 4

text: March 4 – Saladin (the Lion), sultan of Egypt and Syria (b. 1137)

title: 1193


slug: salamis-cyprus

label: Salamis, Cyprus

description: historical state on Cyprus and archaeological site

year_label: 498 BCE

text: Kaunos and Caria, followed by Byzantium and towns in the Hellespont also revolt against the Persians. Cyprus also joins the rebellion, as Onesilus removes his pro-Persian brother, Gorgos, from the throne of Salamis.

title: 498 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 410 BCE

text: Evagoras re-establishes his family's claim as kings of Salamis which has been under Phoenician control for a number of years.

title: 410 BC

section: Events › By place › Cyprus

year_label: 394 BCE

text: The Athenian general Conon, the Persian satrap Pharnabazus and Evagoras, King of Salamis, win an overwhelming naval victory over the Spartans under Peisander in the Battle of Cnidus (near Rhodes). Following this victory, Conon and Pharnabazus sail along the coast of Ionia, expelling Spartan governors and garrisons from the cities, although they fail to reduce the Spartan bases at Abydos and Sestos. With the Spartan bid for building an empire crumbling, Persia gains mastery of the Aegean.

title: 394 BC

year_label: 391 BCE

text: Evagoras of Salamis and the Persians battle each other for control of Cyprus. Aided by the Athenians and the Egyptians, Evagoras extends his rule over the greater part of Cyprus and to several cities of Anatolia.

title: 391 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian Empire

year_label: 381 BCE

text: The Persian generals Tiribazus and Orontes I invade Cyprus, with an army far larger than any King Evagoras I of Cyprus could raise. However, Evagoras manages to cut off this force from being resupplied, and the starving troops rebel. However, the war then turns in the Persians' favour when Evagoras' fleet is destroyed at the Battle of Citium (Larnaca, Cyprus). Evagoras flees to Salamis, where he manages to conclude a peace which allows him to remain nominally king of Salamis, though in reality he is a vassal of the Persian king.

title: 381 BC

year_label: 374 BCE

text: The King of Salamis, Evagoras, is assassinated. He is succeeded by his son, Nicocles, who continues his father's liberal Hellenising policy in Cyprus, encouraged by Isocrates, who writes his Exhortation to Nicocles.

title: 374 BC

text: Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus (assassinated)

title: 374 BC

year_label: 306 BCE

text: Demetrius Poliorcetes lands on Cyprus and besieges Menelaus, brother of Egypt's ruler, Ptolemy I Soter, at Salamis. Ptolemy Soter, coming to his brother's aid, is decisively defeated in the Battle of Salamis. The battle completely destroys the naval power of Egypt and results in the capture of Cyprus by Demetrius. This gives Demetrius' father, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, control of the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean.

title: 306 BC

section: Religion & Belief

text: Epiphanius of Salamis becomes bishop of Salamis, Cyprus.

title: 367

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Arab naval forces under Abdullah ibn Saad conquer Cyprus, sacking the capital Constantia after a short siege, and looting the rest of the island. The Cypriots agree to pay the same revenue as they have done to Emperor Constans II.

title: 649

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire


slug: salerno

label: Salerno

description: Italian city and commune of Campania

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: John VIII travels throughout Campania, in an effort to form an alliance among the southern Italian states (the cities of Salerno, Capua, Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi) against Muslim raids.

title: 876

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Otto I goes on a tour of the Lombard duchies of southern Italy. In Capua he grants Pandulf I (Ironhead) the vacant Duchy of Spoleto and Camerino and charges him with prosecuting the war against the Byzantine Empire. In Benevento, Otto receives the homage of Pandulf's brother and co-ruler Landulf III. In Salerno he receives also the support of Gisulf I.

title: 967

date: June 11

text: June 11 – Lombard Revolt: Mahmoud the Fat of Bari rises up against the Lombard rebels, led by Melus, and delivers the city to Basil Mesardonites, Byzantine governor (catepan) of the Catepanate of Italy. Melus is forced to flee to Salerno, and his brother-in-law Dattus escapes to Monte Cassino, but their families are taken captive, and carted off to Constantinople.

title: 1011

text: Pilgrim besieges the city of Salerno for forty days. Prince Guaimar III offers to give hostages – Pilgrim accepts the prince's son and co-prince Guaimar IV, and lifts the siege.

title: 1022

date: December 13

text: December 13 – Norman conquest of southern Italy: Italo-Norman forces under Robert Guiscard de Hauteville and Richard I of Capua, conquer the fortress city of Salerno after a short siege.

title: 1076

date: July 24

text: July 24 – Battle of Nocera: Rebel Normans under Count Ranulf II defeat the Sicilian forces, led by King Roger II. Seven hundred knights are captured, and Roger is forced to retreat to Salerno.

title: 1132

text: Summer – King Roger II lands with a Sicilian expeditionary force in Salerno. He splits his army, and conquers the cities of Aversa and Alife. Roger besieges Naples – but despite poor health conditions within the city, he is not able to take it, and returns again to Messina.

title: 1135

text: Henry VI is forced to raise the siege of Naples, due to an epidemic, and returns to Germany. Upon Henry's retreat, the Lombard cities that have surrendered to the Germans resubmit to Tancred of Lecce, king or usurper of Sicily. The populace of Salerno turn against Empress Constance during her visit to the city, and Margaritus of Brindisi delivers her to Tancred at Messina. Later, Constance is imprisoned at Castel dell'Ovo at Naples.

title: 1191

text: Emperor Frederick II promulgates the Constitutions of Melfi (Liber Augustalis), a collection of laws for Sicily, as well as the Edict of Salerno, regulating the exercise of medicine and separating the professions of physician and apothecary, and requiring medical schools to practice dissection.

title: 1231

date: September 9

text: September 9 – WWII: Operation Avalanche: 170,000 British and American troops land near Salerno.

title: 1943

section: Events › September

date: October 25

text: October 25 – Landslides caused by heavy rains hit Salerno, Italy, killing about 300.

title: 1954

section: Events › October

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: February 6

text: February 6 – Livraga derailment: A Frecciarossa high-speed train traveling from Milan to Salerno derailed in Livraga, Lombardy, Italy. Two people were killed, and 31 were injured.

title: 2020

section: Events › February


slug: salian-franks

label: Salian Franks

description: 4th & 5th century Franks in today's Netherlands and Belgium

text: The Salian Franks capitulate to Julian the Apostate in Gaul. He allows them to form a Roman foederati in Toxandria. Frankish settlers are established in areas in the north and the east to help with the defense of the Rhine frontier.

title: 358

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Conflict & Security

text: Frankish War (428): Commander-in-chief of the Roman army Aetius put an end to the invasion of Chlodio, king of the Salian Franks in Northern Gaul.

title: 428

text: Aetius pushes the Salian Franks back across the River Somme. King Chlodio signs a peace treaty and becomes a foederatus of the Western Roman Empire.

title: 431

section: Births

text: Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks (approximate date)

title: 437

text: Flavius Aetius suppresses the Bagaudae in Armorica (Gaul), and defeats the Salian Franks under King Chlodio near Arras (Belgica Secunda); the invaders are stopped around a river-crossing near Vicus Helena.

title: 448

section: Deaths

text: Merovech, king of the Salian Franks (approximate date)

title: 457

text: Childeric I succeeds his father Merovech as king of the Salian Franks. He establishes his capital at Tournai (modern Belgium) and becomes a foederatus (pl. foederati) of the Western Roman Empire.

title: 458

text: In the Gothic war against Aegidius, Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks, allies with the Roman general Aegidius. This war is ended by the battle near Orléans, where the Visigoths under King Theodoric II are defeated by the Franks, while crossing the Loire River.

title: 463

text: The Vatican makes a pact with the Salian Frankish king Childeric I, agreeing to call him "the new Constantine" on condition that he accept conversion to Christianity.

title: 469

text: Syagrius, ruler of Domain of Soissons, manages to maintain the Roman authority in northern Gaul. He defends his "kingdom" against the neighbouring Salian Franks.

title: 480

text: King Childeric I dies at Tournai after a 24-year reign. He is succeeded by his 15-year-old son Clovis, who becomes ruler of the Salian Franks in the province Gallia Belgica (modern Belgium) until his death in 511.

title: 481

text: Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks (or 482)

title: 481

text: Emperor Anastasius I formally recognizes Clovis I of the Salian Franks as ruler of Gaul. He sends a Byzantine fleet of 100 warships to raid the coasts of Italy.

title: 508


slug: salzburg

label: Salzburg

description: city in Austria, eponymous capital city of the federal state of Salzburg

year_label: 45 CE

text: Juvavum (modern Salzburg) is awarded the status of a Roman municipium.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 45

text: Rupert, bishop of Salzburg (approximate date)

title: 660

text: St. Peter's Abbey is founded by Rupert, bishop of Worms, at Salzburg (modern Austria).

title: 696

text: March 27 – Rupert, bishop of Salzburg

title: 710

text: Rupert, bishop of Salzburg, founds Nonnberg Abbey in modern-day Austria.

title: 714

text: Duke Grimoald becomes sole ruler of Bavaria, after the deaths of his brothers Theodbert, Theobald, and Tassilo II. He reunites the duchy after a civil war, and makes his capital Salzburg (approximate date).

title: 719

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Stiegl brewery first recorded in Salzburg.

title: 1492

section: Events › Unknown dates

text: The oldest extant cable railway, the Reisszug, is created by order of the Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach shortly after his election on July 7, 1495. The railway is used for the manual pulling of a wheeled cart up an incline, to provide goods for the Hohensalzburg Fortress, at Salzburg in Austria.

title: 1495

section: Events › Date unknown

date: July 16

text: July 16 – A rockfall from the Mönchsberg mountain above Salzburg in Austria kills 230 people as tons of the mountainside fall onto a neighborhood on a street, the Gstättengasse.

title: 1669

section: Events › July–September

date: January 8

text: January 8 – Salzburgers, Lutherans who were expelled by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Salzburg, Austria, in October 1731, set sail for the British Colony of Georgia in America.

title: 1734

section: Events › January– March

section: Science & Discovery

date: January 27

text: January 27 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is born in Salzburg, Austria, to Anna Maria and Leopold Mozart.

title: 1756

section: Events › January–March

section: Culture & Society

date: November 29

text: November 29 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart returns to Salzburg, after the Mozart family grand tour of Europe.

title: 1766

section: Events › October–December

text: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart writes his five violin concertos in Salzburg at about this date.

title: 1775

date: July 21

text: July 21 – Mozart's Serenade No. 7 (the "Haffner") is first performed in Salzburg, Austria.

title: 1776

section: Events › July–August

date: October 17

text: October 17 – Mozart's Great Mass is first performed, in Salzburg, Austria.

title: 1783

date: October 16

text: October 16 – WWII: American bombing of Salzburg destroys the dome of the city's cathedral and most of a Mozart family home.

title: 1944


slug: samanid-empire

label: Samanid Empire

description: former state in Central Asia

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The Samanid Dynasty establishes a court at Bukhara (modern Uzbekistan), which becomes a rival city to Baghdad on the strategic Silk Road.

title: 875

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

text: Nasr I, Muslim emir of the Samanid Empire

title: 892

text: Summer – The Persian nobility installs Isma'il ibn Ahmad, the former governor of Transoxiana, as ruler (emir) of the Samanid Empire, after the death of his brother Nasr I.

title: 892

text: Isma'il ibn Ahmad, emir of the Samanid Empire

title: 907

text: Emir Isma'il ibn Ahmad dies after a 15-year reign in which he has extended his borders to Tabaristan and Khorasan. He establishes independence throughout the eastern part of his empire from his capital at Bukhara. Isma'il is succeeded by his son Ahmad Samani as ruler of the Samanid Empire.

title: 907

section: Crime & Justice

date: January 12

text: January 12 – Ahmad Samani, emir of the Samanid Empire, is murdered (decapitation) while sleeping in his tent at Bukhara (modern Uzbekistan) by some of his slaves. He is succeeded by his 8-year-old son, Nasr II, under the regency of Vizier Abu Abdallah al-Jayhani. The Abbasids try, in vain, to benefit from the turmoil to reconquer Sistan.

title: 914

text: Emir Mardavij ibn Ziyar invades Tabaristan and captures the city of Gorgan. The Daylamite military leader Makan ibn Kaki tries to reclaim his territories, but fails. He seeks refuge among the Samanids and enters the service of their ruler Nasr II. He appoints him as governor of Kirman (modern Iran).

title: 932

section: Events › By place › Asia

section: Religion & Belief

text: Summer – Ali ibn Buya, a Samanid governor, takes advantage of the anarchy in Persia and conquers Fars (modern Iran). He founds the Buyid Dynasty, and makes Shiraz his capital. Ali seeks the recognition of the Abbasid caliph Ar-Radi, who confirms him later as his viceroy.

title: 934

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Caliphate

text: Nuh II, emir of the Samanid Dynasty (Iran) (d. 997)

title: 963

date: June 13

text: June 13 – Mansur I, emir of the Samanid Empire

title: 976

section: Climate & Environment

text: Spring – Sabuktigin, a Samanid general, succeeds his father-in-law Alp-Tegin as governor of Ghazna (modern Afghanistan). He enlarges his dominions and founds the Ghaznavid Dynasty.

title: 977

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Dari dialect (which will become the major language of Persia) is developed in the royal courts of the Samanid Empire in Central Asia.

title: 980

text: The Karakhanids invade from north of the Syr Darya river, ending the Samanid Empire (modern Uzbekistan). The Samanid domains are split between the Ghaznavid Dynasty and the Karakhanids.

title: AD 999

text: Isma'il Muntasir ("Victorious"), ruler of the Samanids

title: 1005


slug: samarkand

label: Samarkand

description: city in southeastern Uzbekistan

year_label: 328 BCE

text: At Maracanda, Alexander murders Cleitus, one of his most trusted commanders, friend and foster-brother, in a drunken quarrel; but his excessive display of remorse leads the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason.

title: 328 BC

section: Events › By place › Macedonian Empire

text: Arab forces gain power in Central Asia, as Qutayba ibn Muslim becomes governor of Khorasan. The region has grown rich from trade with China and Eastern Europe, its merchants dealing in silk, furs, amber, honey, and walrus ivory. During his rule, Qutayba subjugates the mercantile cities of Bukhara and Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan), as well as the Oxus delta area of Khwarezm, south of the Aral Sea.

title: 705

section: Conflict & Security

text: Arab forces under Qutayba ibn Muslim conquer Khwarezm and Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan).

title: 712

text: Umayyad conquest of Transoxiana: The first Turgesh attack on Muslim-Arabs in Transoxiana leads to the siege and relief of the Umayyad garrison at the fortress of Qasr al-Bahili, near Samarkand (or 721).

title: 720

text: Siege of Kamarja: A small Arab garrison defends the fortress of Kamarja against the Turgesh for 58 days, ending with a negotiated withdrawal to Samarkand.

title: 729

text: Battle of the Defile: An Umayyad relief army (28,000 men) is sent to Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan), which is besieged by the Turgesh. The Muslims are ambushed near the Zarafshan Range, at the Tashtakaracha Pass. The battle results in a Pyrrhic victory, with heavy casualties for the Umayyad army, halting Muslim expansion in Central Asia for almost two decades.

title: 731

text: Rafi ibn al-Layth, an Arab nobleman, leads a large-scale rebellion against oppressive taxation by the Abbasid governor Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan. He launches a revolt in Samarkand, which spreads quickly across Khorasan.

title: 806

text: Ghassan ibn Abbad, the Abbasid governor of Khorasan rewards the Samanid brothers, Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya and ilyas for their aid against the rebel Rafi ibn al-Layth, rewarding them each important cities and territories, respectively Samarkand, Farghana, Tashkent and Herat, to govern under Abbasid suzerainty. This becomes the basis for the formation of the Samanid dynasty which will rule Khorasan for a century.

title: 819

text: Timur ascends the throne of Samarkand (in modern-day Uzbekistan).

title: 1368

text: Timur names the city of Samarkand as the capital of his empire.

title: 1369

section: Events › Dates unknown

section: Deaths

text: The Gur-e Amir Mausoleum is built in Samarkand by Timur, after the death of his grandson Muhammad Sultan, and eventually becomes the family mausoleum of the Timurid dynasty.

title: 1403

date: May 21

text: May 21 – Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, an ambassador from the king of Castile to Timur, leaves Cadiz; he arrives in Samarkand over a year later.

title: 1403

section: Events › April–June

date: March 18

text: March 18 – News reaches the Timurid Empire that Timur has died, and a period of mourning begins as he is interred at the Gur-e-Amir mausoleum in Samarkand, now in the Republic of Uzbekistan.

title: 1405

text: Ulugh Beg becomes governor of Samarkand.

title: 1409

date: May 13

text: May 13 – The Timurid War of Succession comes to an end as Khalil Sultan surrenders Samarkand to Shah Rukh, ruler of the Timurid Empire since 1405. Shah Rukh installs his son Ulugh Beg as Governor of Transoxiana. Shah Rukh then appoints Khalil as Governor of Shahr-e Rey in modern-day Iran.

title: 1409


slug: samnites

label: Samnites

description: Italic people living in Samnium in south-central Italy

year_label: 438 BCE

text: The city of Capua falls to the Samnites.

title: 438 BC

section: Events › By place › Italy

year_label: 428 BCE

text: The Greek colony of Cumae in Italy falls to the Samnites, who begin to take control of the Campanian plain.

title: 428 BC

year_label: 421 BCE

text: The city of Cumae, the most northerly of the Greek colonies in Italy, falls to the Samnites.

title: 421 BC

year_label: 354 BCE

text: Rome allies itself with the Samnites and they agree on a mutual defence pact.

title: 354 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 343 BCE

text: First Samnite War began when Rome fought the confederated Samnites over disputed territory in the Middle Liris Valley.

title: 343 BC

year_label: 342 BCE

text: The Battle of Mount Gaurus is fought between the Romans and the Samnites. The battle is a success for the Romans, who, it is said, are led by Marcus Valerius Corvus. Fought at the foot of Mount Gaurus, near Cumae, it is the most notable engagement of the First Samnite War.

title: 342 BC

year_label: 341 BCE

text: The First Samnite War ends with Rome triumphant and the Samnites willing to make peace.

title: 341 BC

year_label: 332 BCE

text: After a victory over the Samnites and Lucanians near Paestum, Alexander of Epirus makes a treaty with the Romans.

title: 332 BC

year_label: 327 BCE

text: The Samnite army captures Neapolis (present-day Naples). The Romans, who are meanwhile moving south while the Samnites are occupied with Tarentum, take the opportunity to recover Neapolis and, after a long siege, evict the Samnite garrison from the city and make it an ally of Rome.

title: 327 BC

year_label: 326 BCE

text: Following their defeat by the Roman forces in Naples, the Samnites declare war on Rome starting the Second Samnite War. To help defeat the Samnites, the Romans make alliances with the peoples of Central Italy to the north of Samnium and with the Apulians to the southeast.

title: 326 BC

year_label: 321 BCE

text: Continuing successes by Rome's armies against the Samnites forces the Samnites to sue for peace. However, the terms offered by Rome are so stringent that they are rejected by the Samnites and the war goes on.

title: 321 BC

year_label: 316 BCE

text: The Romans, with an eye to capturing Apulia, send an army (led by dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus) to seize the town of Lucera from the Samnites. They are badly beaten in the Battle of Lautulae and the Samnites go on to reach within 32 kilometres of Rome.

title: 316 BC

year_label: 315 BCE

text: The Samnites defeat a Roman army led by dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus at the Battle of Lautulae.

title: 315 BC

year_label: 314 BCE

text: The Roman consuls march their combined army to Tarracina and defeat a Samnite army there; killing 10,000 Samnites in the battle and the subsequent pursuit.

title: 314 BC

text: Success seems to be going the Samnites' way in their ongoing battles against the Romans. Campania is on the verge of deserting Rome. Peace is established between Rome and some Samnite towns.

title: 314 BC

year_label: 313 BCE

text: The Samnites take Fregellae in Latium, the Roman dictator Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus marches his army from Rome and moves to retake it, but the Samnites leave at night; Visolus places a garrison in the city.

title: 313 BC

year_label: 310 BCE

text: Rome deals with renewed trouble from the Etruscans, who are persuaded by the Samnites to cease their alliance with the Romans. In the Battle of Lake Vadimo, the Romans under Fabius Maximus Rullianus defeat the Etruscans.

title: 310 BC

year_label: 309 BCE

text: The Samnites again rise against Rome. Lucius Papirius Cursor is appointed dictator for the second time and wins a great victory at Longula over the Samnites.

title: 309 BC

text: The Samnites take Sora and Calatia, cities allied to the Romans, and enslave their inhabitants.

title: 306 BC

year_label: 305 BCE

text: The Roman consuls, Marcus Fulvius Curvus Paetinus and Lucius Postumius Megellus, decisively defeat the Samnites in the Battle of Bovianum to end the Second Samnite War.

title: 305 BC

year_label: 304 BCE

text: The second Samnite war formally ends with a peace agreement in which the Samnites obtain peace on terms that are severe but not as crushing as those agreed by the Romans with the Etruscans four years earlier. Under the peace, Rome gains no territory, but the Samnites renounce their hegemony over Campania. Rome is also successful in ending the revolts amongst the tribes surrounding Roman territory.

title: 304 BC

year_label: 295 BCE

text: Gellius Egnatius, Roman military leader of the Samnites

title: 295 BC

year_label: 282 BCE

text: Rome declares war on Tarentum. King Pyrrhus of Epirus declares his willingness to come to the aid of Tarentum. Tarentum also looks for support from the Samnites and other Italian tribes in southern Italy.

title: 282 BC

year_label: 279 BCE

text: Pyrrhus realizes that he cannot capture Rome and suggests peace terms to the Romans. Pyrrhus sends his chief advisor, Cineas, to Rome to negotiate a peace. Cineas demands that the Romans halt their aggression against the Greeks of southern Italy and restore the lands the Romans have taken from the Bruttii, the Apulians, and the Samnites. The Romans reject his demands, largely at the instigation of the former Roman censor, Appius Claudius Caecus.

title: 279 BC

year_label: 277 BCE

text: Battle of the Cranita Hills: Roman forces are defeated by the Samnites at the Cranita Hills during the Pyrrhic War.

title: 277 BC

year_label: 272 BCE

text: Pyrrhus' departure from southern Italy three years earlier leads to the Samnites finally being conquered by the Romans. With the surrender of Tarentum, the cities of Magna Graecia in southern Italy come under Roman influence and become Roman allies. Rome now effectively dominates all of the Italian peninsula.

title: 272 BC

year_label: 270 BCE

text: Rome's subjugation of Italy is completed by the recapture of Rhegium (southern Italy) from the Mamertines and the defeat of the Brutians, the Lucanians, the Calabrians and the Samnites. The town of Rhegium is then restored by the Romans to its Greek inhabitants.

title: 270 BC

year_label: 82 BCE

date: November 1

text: November 1: Sulla defeats an army of Samnites and Lucanians alliance in the Battle of the Colline Gate.

title: 82 BC


slug: samnium

label: Samnium

description: historical region in Southern Italy

year_label: 340 BCE

text: The Romans succeed in detaching the Campanians from their alliance with the Latins (through their fear of the Samnites) and induce them to make a separate peace. Three Campanian cities, including Capua and Cumae, are granted Roman citizenship and thus become part of the Roman state. The Roman state now extends to the Bay of Naples.

title: 340 BC

year_label: 334 BCE

text: Alexander of Epirus, at the request of the colony of Taras (Tarentum) crosses over into Italy, to aid them against the Lucanians and Bruttii. He wins victories over the Italian Samnite tribes.

title: 334 BC

year_label: 326 BCE

text: Following their defeat by the Roman forces in Naples, the Samnites declare war on Rome starting the Second Samnite War. To help defeat the Samnites, the Romans make alliances with the peoples of Central Italy to the north of Samnium and with the Apulians to the southeast.

title: 326 BC

text: Two Roman consuls, Spurius Postumius Albinus and Titus Veturius Calvinus, leading an invading force into Samnium, are trapped in a mountain pass known as the Caudine Forks (Caudium) near Beneventum, where they can neither advance nor retire, and after a desperate struggle, they are forced to submit to the humiliating terms imposed by the Samnite victor, Gaius Pontius. The captured consuls pledge themselves to a five-year treaty on terms most favourable for the Samnites.

title: 321 BC

year_label: 312 BCE

text: The Second Samnite War continues: there are rumours of a mobilisation of the Etruscans; since the consul Marcus Valerius Maximus Corvus is campaigning in Samnium and his consular colleague Publius Decius Mus is to ill to lead an army, the people appoint Gaius Sulpicius Longus as dictator. Sulpicius appoints Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus as his Magister Equitum (Second-in-command). Sulpicius ' mission is to defend against the Etruscan invasion which never materialize; Sulpicius and Brutus remain in camp at Rome until the end of the campaigning season.

title: 312 BC

year_label: 306 BCE

text: The Romans invade Iapygia and begin a siege of Silvium (garrisoned by the Samnites). Eventually, they take the city by storm, taking 5,000 prisoners. After the Siege of Silvium they invade Samnium itself, pillaging the countryside for five months.

title: 306 BC

year_label: 216 BCE

text: Following Hannibal's victory, many regions begin to defect from Rome, while others are conquered by Hannibal's forces. In Apulia, Lucania, Samnium and in Bruttium, Hannibal finds many supporters.

title: 216 BC

year_label: 42 BCE

text: Octavian returns to Rome and arranges for ± 40,000 veterans' settlements in Campania, Etruria, Picenum, Samnium, Umbria, and in northern Italy.

title: 42 BC

date: May 8

text: May 8 – Honorius signs an edict providing tax relief for the Italian provinces Tuscia, Campania, Picenum, Samnium, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria, which were plundered by the Visigoths.

title: 413

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire


slug: samoa

label: Samoa

description: sovereign state made up of six islands in the Pacific Ocean

text: Samoa frees itself from Tongan rule, which begins the Malietoa dynasty in Samoa (approximate date).

title: 1250

section: Events › By place › Oceania

text: The missionary ship Messenger of Peace is built on Rarotonga by English Congregationalist John Williams to spread Christianity to Samoa and the Society Islands on behalf of the London Missionary Society.

title: 1827

section: Events › Date unknown

section: Economy & Finance

date: July 4

text: July 4 – Samoa changes its time zone from 4 hours ahead of Japan to being 3 hours behind California, such that it crosses the International Date Line, and Monday, July 4 occurs twice.

title: 1892

section: Events › July

date: June 10

text: June 10 – Under the terms of the Samoa Tripartite Convention, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States form a colonial government to administer a protectorate over the islands of Samoa. The government lasts less than nine months, and Germany annexes the western part of Samoa on March 1, 1900, leaving the U.S. to control what becomes American Samoa.

title: 1899

section: Events › June

date: December 28

text: December 28 – "Black Saturday" in Samoa: New Zealand colonial police kill 11 unarmed demonstrators, an event which leads the Mau movement to demand independence for Samoa.

title: 1929

section: Events › December

date: May 11

text: May 11 – Malietoa Tanumafili II, the head of state of Samoa since its independence, dies in office at the age of 94. His death triggers the first election for the office of Samoan head of state.

title: 2007

section: Events › May

date: December 29

text: December 29 – Samoa and Tokelau move from east to west of the International Date Line, thereby skipping December 30, in order to align their time zones better with their main trading partners.

title: 2011

date: January 15

text: January 15 – A large eruption of Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai, a submarine volcano in Tonga, triggers tsunami warnings in Australia, Canada, Chile, Fiji, Japan, New Zealand, Samoa, and the United States.

title: 2022

section: Events › January