slug: arizona

label: Arizona

description: state of the United States of America

section: Climate & Environment

text: Sunset Crater Volcano (modern-day Arizona) first erupts (approximate date)

title: 1064

section: Events › By topic › Volcanology

text: Oraibi, a Hopi village in Navajo County, becomes the oldest populated settlement in modern-day Arizona (modern-day United States).

title: 1100

section: Events › By place › Americas

date: November 13

text: November 13 – Word of the discovery of silver, south of what is now the U.S.-Mexican border, reaches Sonora Governor Juan Bautista Anza and soon leads to prospectors coming to Nogales to find more silver. Late in October, a Yaqui Indian prospector, Antonio Siraumea, had discovered large slabs of silver ("Las planchas de plata"), and at the Estancia Arizona, a ranch owned by Captain Bernardo de Urrea. The region, and later the U.S. territory, and state of Arizona are named for Urrea's ranch.

title: 1736

section: Events › October–December

section: Conflict & Security

date: November 17

text: November 17 – American Old West: On the Sonoita River in modern-day southern Arizona, the United States Army establishes Fort Buchanan, in order to help control new land acquired in the Gadsden Purchase.

title: 1856

date: June 1

text: June 1 – The Treaty of Bosque Redondo is signed, allowing the Navajo to return to their lands in Arizona and New Mexico.

title: 1868

section: Events › June

section: Culture & Society

date: December 14

text: December 14 – President Ulysses S. Grant establishes the San Carlos Apache Reservation, in southeastern Arizona.

title: 1872

section: Events › December

date: February 25

text: February 25 – The majority of the Yavapai (Wipukyipai) and Tonto Apache (Dil Zhéé) tribes are forced by the United States Cavalry, under command of Brigadier General George Crook, to walk at gunpoint from Arizona's Verde Valley, to the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, 180 miles to the southeast. The two tribes are not allowed to return to the Verde Valley until 1900.

title: 1875

date: September 4

text: September 4 – American Indian Wars: After almost 30 years of fighting, Apache leader Geronimo surrenders, with his last band of warriors, to General Nelson Miles, at Skeleton Canyon in Arizona.

title: 1886

section: Events › September

date: April 13

text: April 13 – Mexican Revolution: Rebels take Agua Prieta on the Sonora–Arizona border; government troops take the town back April 17, when the rebel leader "Red" López gets drunk.

title: 1911

section: Events › April

date: February 14

text: February 14 – Arizona is admitted as the 48th state of the United States, the last contiguous state to be admitted into the Union.

title: 1912

section: Births

date: August 29

text: August 29 – John McCain, American politician, U.S. Senator (R-Az.) (d. 2018)

title: 1936

section: Births › August

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: June 15

text: June 15–July 1 – In New Mexico, Arizona, California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, thousands of acres of forests are destroyed in fires.

title: 1951

date: June 30

text: June 30 – 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision: A TWA Lockheed Constellation and United Airlines Douglas DC-7 collide in mid-air over the Grand Canyon in Arizona, killing all 128 people aboard both aircraft, in the deadliest civil aviation disaster to date; the accident leads to sweeping changes in the regulation of cross-country flight and air traffic control over the United States.

title: 1956

text: November 17 – A spectacular Leonid meteor shower passes over Arizona, at the rate of 2,300 a minute for 20 minutes.

title: 1966

section: Events › November

text: Lonsdaleite (the rarest allotrope of carbon) is first discovered in the Barringer Crater, Arizona.

title: 1967


slug: arles

label: Arles

description: commune in Bouches-du-Rhône, France

year_label: 46 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Julius Caesar establishes Julia Paterna Arelate as a colony in Gaul for veterans of the Sixth Legion, at the present day site of Arles.

title: 46 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

text: Maximian, retired emperor, rebels against Constantine I in Arles while the latter is campaigning against the Franks.

title: 310

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Religion & Belief

text: Constantius II assembles a conciliabulum at Arles, and condemns Athanasius as Patriarch of Alexandria.

title: 353

text: Roman Civil war of 407–415:Constantine III, a general (magister militum), declares himself Roman emperor. To extend his dominion over Gaul and Spain, he takes practically all the Roman garrisons from Britain and crosses the English Channel. Constantine occupies Arles and establishes tenuous authority over Gaul, sharing control with marauding "barbarians". This is generally seen as the beginning of Rome's withdrawal from Britain.

title: 407

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Roman usurper Constantine III establishes his headquarters at Arles (Southern Gaul) and elevates his eldest son, Constans, to the rank of Caesar. He sends him with an expeditionary force under Gerontius to Hispania, in order to suppress the revolt of some members of the Theodosian dynasty, who are loyal to Honorius.

title: 408

text: Battle or siege of Arles: Emperor Honorius sends two Roman generals to deal with the usurper Constantine III in Gaul. They take over the army of Gerontius, Constantine's rebellious general (magister militum) who flees to Spain, then defeat Edobichus near Arles and defeat Constantine III. He is taken prisoner and put to death at Ravenna.

title: AD 411

date: July 9

text: July 9 – Avitus is proclaimed Roman emperor at Toulouse, and later recognised by the Gallic chiefs in Viernum (near Arles).

title: 455

text: Battle of Arelate: Majorian defeats the Visigoths under King Theodoric II at Arles (Southern Gaul), near the Rhone River. Theodoric is forced to sign a peace treaty and becomes a foederatus (pl. foederati) of the Western Roman Empire.

title: 458

text: Caesarius, bishop of Arles (or 469; d. 542)

title: 470

text: Revolt of Euric: The Aquitanian Goths under Euric defeat a Roman army that was sent by Emperor Anthemius near Arles and conquer a large part of the Provence (Southern Gaul). The city of Clermont-Ferrand in Auvergne is besieged.

title: 471

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: King Euric orders the invasion of Italy, but is defeated by Glycerius. The Visigoths withdraw to Gaul, and conquer the cities of Arles and Marseille.

title: 473

text: Odoacer crosses the Maritime Alps with a Gothic army and invades Provence (Southern Gaul). He conquers the cities of Arles and Marseille, after a victorious battle against the Burgundians.

title: 476

text: Caesarius becomes bishop of Arles. His episcopal see, near the mouth of the Rhone River and close to Marseille, retains its ancient importance in the social and commercial life of Gaul for forty years.

title: AD 502

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: King Theodoric the Great raises the Frankish siege at Arles; the city is heroically defended by its inhabitants, assisted by the Ostrogothic general Theudis. The Ostrogoths overrun Provence (Southern Gaul), and consolidate their gains in the region.

title: 510

text: The convent of Saint-Césaire is built in Arles.

title: 511

section: Deaths

date: August 27

text: August 27 – Caesarius, bishop of Arles

title: 542

text: Pope Gregory I criticizes the bishops of Arles and Marseille for allowing the forced baptism of Jews in Provence (France).

title: 591

text: Umayyad conquest of Gaul: Munuza, Moorish governor of Cerdagne (eastern Pyrenees), rebels against Umayyad authority. He is defeated and executed by Muslim forces under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi at Urgell (Catalonia). Muslim garrisons in Septimania raid the cities Millau and Arles.

title: 731

text: Umayyad conquest of Gaul: Muslim forces under Abd al-Malik ibn Qatn al-Fihri, governor (wali) of Al-Andalus (modern Spain), enter Provence and raid the Rhône Valley. The cities of Avignon, Arles, and probably Marseille are handed over by Count Maurontus, who is in rebellion against Charles Martel.

title: 734

text: Moors under Uqba ibn Al-Hajjaj cross the Pyrenees into France. Uqba fortifies Narbonne and reconquers Avignon, Arles, Nimes. He then advances into Provence, and penetrates as far as Piedmont; he then heads North, and conquers Dauphiné, destroying the city of Saint-Paul, taking Valence, Vienne and Lyon, which he uses as a base to attack Bourgogne.

title: 738

text: Louis III returns to Provence. Unable to govern properly, he relinquishes the government of Lower Burgundy to his cousin Hugh, Count of Arles.

title: 905

date: June 5

text: June 5 – Louis III (the Blind), former king of Provence (Lower Burgundy), dies at Arles after a 27-year reign (of which 23 are sightless). He is succeeded by his brother-in-law Hugh I who is King of Italy. With the approval of his kinsman Rudolph I, Hugh strips Louis's son and heir, Charles Constantine, of his inheritance and proclaims himself as ruler of Provence.

title: 928

date: July 11

text: July 11 – King Rudolph II of Burgundy dies after a 25-year reign, and is succeeded by his 12-year-old son Conrad I ("the Peaceful"). His wife, Queen Bertha, takes effective control of unified Burgundy, transferring its capital to Arles (that Burgundian kingdom was later known from the 12th century as the Kingdom of Arles).

title: 937

text: June 30 – Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) is crowned King of Burgundy at Arles. He will repeat the ceremony in 1186. Returning to Germany, he begins proceedings against Henry III (the Lion), duke of Saxony, who has been charged by Saxon noblemen with breaking the king's peace.

title: 1178


slug: armenia

label: Armenia

description: sovereign state in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia

year_label: 782 BCE

text: 782 BC—Founding of Erebuni Fortress by the orders of King Argishtis I of Urartu at the site of current-day Yerevan, Armenia

title: 780s BC

section: Events and trends

year_label: 600 BCE

text: The country of Armenia is created. (approximate date)

title: 600 BC

section: Events › By place › Middle East

year_label: 570 BCE

text: The Satrapy of Armenia is established as a province of the Achaemenid Empire. This is the first polity to bear the name Armenia.

title: 570 BC

section: Events

year_label: 382 BCE

text: Orontes I of Armenia (b. 425 BC), son of Artasyrus

title: 382 BC

year_label: 330 BCE

text: Alexander appoints Atropates as the satrap of Media while Mithrenes is appointed by Alexander as satrap of Armenia.

title: 330 BC

section: Events › By place › Macedonian Empire

year_label: 317 BCE

text: Armenia's Persian satrap, Ardvates, frees his country from Macedonian control.

title: 317 BC

year_label: 284 BCE

text: Ardvates, governor and later ruler of Armenia who founds a dynasty that will rule until 211 BC

title: 284 BC

year_label: 228 BCE

text: Arsames I, king of Armenia, Sophene and Commagene

title: 228 BC

year_label: 211 BCE

text: Antiochus III's sister arranges for the removal of Armenia's king Xerxes, whom she has recently married. Antiochus III then divides the country into two satrapies.

title: 211 BC

section: Events › By place › Seleucid Empire

year_label: 190 BCE

text: Following Antiochus III's defeat by the Romans, two of Antiochus III's Armenian satraps, Artaxias and Zariadres, declare themselves independent of the Seleucids. With Roman consent, they establish themselves as kings of the Kingdom of Armenia and the district of Sophene (Armenia Minor), respectively. Artaxias builds his capital, Artaxata, on the Araxes River (now the Aras River) near Lake Sevan.

title: 190 BC

year_label: 189 BCE

text: The territory of Artsakh first became known for being inhabited by Armenians-notably within the city of Tigranakert, one of four cities named after Tigranes the Great in the ancient Armenian empire.

title: 189 BC

section: Events › By place › Asia Minor

year_label: 165 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Artaxias I, king of Armenia, is taken captive by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes when he attacks Armenia. Artaxias is forced to recognize Antiochus IV's suzerainty over Armenia before he is released.

title: 165 BC

year_label: 160 BCE

text: Artavasdes I succeeds his father Artaxias I as king of Armenia.

title: 160 BC

section: Events › By place › Armenia

text: Artaxias I, king of Armenia who has ruled since 190 BC and the founder of the Artaxiad dynasty, whose members would rule the Kingdom of Armenia for nearly two centuries

title: 160 BC

year_label: 100 BCE

text: Tigranes II of Armenia is placed on the Armenian throne by the Parthians in exchange for the cession of "seventy valley" (approximate date).

title: 100 BC

year_label: 95 BCE

text: Tigranes the Great becomes king of Armenia

title: 95 BC

year_label: 92 BCE

text: Sulla repulses Tigranes of Armenia from Cappadocia.

title: 92 BC

year_label: 72 BCE

text: Battle of Cabira: Lucius Lucullus defeats King Mithridates VI and overruns Pontus. Mithridates flees to Armenia, ruled by his son-in-law Tigranes, who refuses to turn his father-in-law in to Lucius Lucullus.

title: 72 BC

year_label: 70 BCE

text: Lucullus captures Sinop, then invades Armenia.

title: 70 BC

year_label: 66 BCE

text: Tigranes II is forced to surrender, by a payment of 6,000 talents, and is reinstated by Pompey as a "friend of the Roman people" to hold Armenia as a buffer zone.

title: 66 BC

year_label: 65 BCE

text: Tigranes of Armenia is defeated and captured by Pompey, thus ending all hostilities on the northeastern frontier of Rome.

title: 65 BC

year_label: 53 BCE

text: Artavasdes II becomes king of Armenia.

title: 53 BC

year_label: 37 BCE

text: Antony reorganizes Asia Minor under strongmen loyal to him. He raises troops from his allies: Amyntas and Archelaus, kings of Galatia and Cappadocia. The old kingdom of Pontus is restored, from Armenia to the River Halys under Polemon I.

title: 37 BC

year_label: 36 BCE

text: Publius Canidius Crassus invades Armenia and Iberia (Georgia); he forces Parnavaz II into an alliance against Zober, king of Albania.

title: 36 BC

year_label: 34 BCE

text: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian pacifies Dalmatia and Pannonia forming the province of Illyricum, while Antony regains Armenia from Parthia. Octavian reduces the outposts defending the Liburnian town of Promona, sets up siege works and forces its surrender.

title: 34 BC

text: Antony advances into Armenia with an expeditionary force (16 legions) and marches to the capital Artaxata. He arrests king Artavasdes II and takes him to Alexandria.

title: 34 BC

year_label: 22 BCE

text: King Artaxias II returns, with the support of the Parthians, to Armenia and claims the throne. Artavasdes I escapes to Rome, where Caesar Augustus receives him.

title: 22 BC

year_label: 20 BCE

text: Mithridates II, king of Commagene (Armenia)

title: 20 BC

year_label: 1 CE

text: AD 1 – Gaius Caesar meets with Phraates V, the king of Parthia, on the Euphrates. Rather than invading the Parthians, Gaius Caesar concludes peace with them; Parthia recognizes Roman claims to Armenia.

title: 0s

section: Events › Roman Empire

year_label: 12 CE

text: The Armenian Artaxiad dynasty is overthrown by the Romans.

title: 10s

section: Events › 12 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 34 CE

text: Rome intervenes in Armenia (AD 34–37).

title: 30s

section: Events › 34 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 53 CE

text: Tiridates I, brother of Vologases I, comes to power in Armenia as an adversary of the Romans.

title: 50s

section: Events › 53 AD › Caucasus

year_label: 54 CE

text: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo arrives in the East and takes up an assignment as governor of Asia, with a secret brief from Nero and his chief ministers, Seneca and Burrus, to return Armenia to the Roman Empire.

title: 50s

text: War between Rome and Parthia breaks out due to the invasion of Armenia by King Vologases I, who has replaced the Roman-supported ruler with his brother Tiridates I of Armenia. (approximate date)

title: 50s

text: Roman-Parthian War: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, commander in the East, launches his Armenian offensive against Parthia. He leads a Roman army (four legions) through the mountainous country of Armenia, against the fortress at Volandum, to the southwest of Artaxata. After a siege of eight hours Corbulo takes the city; the legionnaires massacre the defenders and plunder Volandum to their hearts' content.

title: 50s

text: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, Roman commander in the east, captures Tigranocerta in Mesopotamia. He installs Tigranes VI, a Cappadocian prince, as ruler of Armenia. For the next four years, a cohort from Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X Fretensis is stationed in the capital as bodyguard to the king, supported by fifteen hundred auxiliaries.

title: 50s

text: The Parthians invade Armenia and lay siege to Tigranocerta. The city is well-fortified and garrisoned by the Romans. The assault fails and king Vologases I retreats. Instead, he makes preparations to invade Syria.

title: AD 62

text: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo is restored to command after the Roman debacle at the Battle of Rhandeia. He invades Armenia and defeats Tiridates I, who accepts Roman sovereignty. Parthia withdraws from the war.

title: AD 63

text: Vespasian fortifies Armazi (Georgia) for the Iberian king Mithridates I. The Alans raid the Roman frontier in Armenia.

title: AD 75

text: Emperor Trajan defeats the Parthians and overruns Armenia and northern Mesopotamia.

title: AD 114

text: Autumn – The Parthians invade Armenia, and install their own candidate on the throne. A legion (perhaps Legio IX Hispana) is destroyed at Elegeia.

title: AD 161

text: Lucius Verus begins a war with the Parthians, due to the invasion of Syria and Armenia by King Vologases IV of Parthia.

title: AD 162

text: End of the war with Parthia: The Parthians leave Armenia and eastern Mesopotamia, which both become Roman protectorates.

title: AD 166

text: Armenia and Mesopotamia become protectorates of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 171

text: Caracalla provokes a war with Artabanus V (of Parthia) to imitate his idol Alexander the Great. He crosses the Tigris, destroys towns and spoils the tombs of Arbela. The Roman army annexes Armenia.

title: 216

text: April 28 – Battle of Hormozdgan: King Ardashir I defeats Artabanus V, destroying the Parthian Empire, and establishing the Sassanid Dynasty. Artabanus V's brother Vologases VI will continue to rule, with Armenian and Kushan support, over outlying parts of Parthia.

title: 224

text: Roman–Persian Wars: Emperor Alexander Severus launches a three-pronged counterattack against the Persian forces of King Ardashir I, who have invaded Mesopotamia. However, the Roman army advancing through Armenia is halted. Alexander gives the order to march to the capital at Ctesiphon, but the Romans are defeated, and withdraw to Syria. The result is an acceptance of the status quo, and after heavy losses on both sides, a truce is signed.

title: 232

text: Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus) declares himself co-emperor, and makes a controversial peace with the Sassanian Empire, withdrawing from their territory and giving Shapur 500,000 gold pieces. The Sassanians occupy Armenia.

title: 244

text: Shapur I invades Armenia, and appoints Artavazd VI as the new Armenian king.

title: 252

text: Diocletian signs a peace treaty with King Bahram II of Persia, and installs the pro-Roman Arsacid Tiridates III as king over the western portion of Armenia.

title: 287

text: The Persian king Narseh invades Roman-held Upper Mesopotamia and Arsacid western Armenia, the latter territory being under the leadership of the pro-Roman king Tiridates III. With only a small army, Caesar Galerius fights three holding actions against Narseh's army in Mesopotamia. Somewhere in the open plains between Carrhae and Callinicum, Galerius' army suffers a defeat against the Persian army, which is both more numerous and contains superior numbers of high-quality cavalry. Nevertheless, Galerius succeeds in blunting the Persian offensive.

title: 296

text: Battle of Satala: Galerius launches a surprise attack against Narseh's camp in western Armenia. The Romans sack the camp and capture Narseh's wives, sisters and daughters, including his Queen of Queens Arsane. Narseh is wounded and escapes to his empire.

title: 297

text: Diocletian watches over the Syrian provinces while Caesar Galerius makes preparations for a campaign against the Persian king Narseh. He recruits veterans from Illyria and Moesia, recruits new soldiers, and strengthens his army with Gothic mercenaries and the Armenian units of Tiridates III.

title: 297

text: Caesar Galerius restores Tiridates III to the throne of Armenia and invades the Sassanid Empire. His army marches through Adiabene, Atropatene, Susiana and Lower Mesopotamia. He then retakes the strategically important city of Nisibis in Upper Mesopotamia.

title: 298

text: Peace of Nisibis: Emperor Diocletian signs a treaty with the Persian king Narseh that will last for 40 years. The Persians accept Roman dominion over Armenia, the Caucasus, and Upper Mesopotamia. The pro-Roman ruler Tiridates III receives all of Armenia as far as the border with Atropatene. Mirian III of the Kingdom of Iberia is made a Roman client, and at some point in time, as a result of the treaty, Caucasian Albania will follow suit. Rome also gains five satrapies beyond the Tigris, which are perhaps given to Tiridates to administer.

title: 299

text: King Tiridates III (the Great) proclaims Christianity as the official state religion, making Armenia the first nation to adopt Christianity as its official religion (traditional date). Construction of the original Etchmiadzin Cathedral by Gregory the Illuminator begins.

title: 301

text: Flavius Hannibalianus, ruler of Armenia and Pontus (d. 337)

title: 315

text: Gregory the Illuminator appoints his son Aristax as successor in the patriarchate of Armenia.

title: 318

text: Gregory the Illuminator withdraws to a small sanctuary in the Daranali province (Armenia).

title: 331

text: Theodosius I sends Flavius Stilicho as an envoy to the Persian court of King Shapur III at Ctesiphon, to negotiate a peace settlement relating to the partition of Armenia.

title: AD 383

text: Emperor Theodosius I signs a peace treaty with King Shapur III; they divide Armenia into two kingdoms (vassal states). The treaty establishes friendly relations between the Roman Empire and Persia for the next 36 years.

title: 386

text: Peace of Acilisene: King Shapur III signs a treaty with Theodosius I. Armenia is divided in two kingdoms, and becomes a vassal state of the Roman Empire and Persia.

title: 387

text: King Shapur III dies after a reign in which he has partitioned Armenia with the Roman Empire. He is succeeded by his son Bahram IV, who becomes the twelfth Sassanid king of Persia.

title: 388

text: Peter of Sebaste, bishop of Armenia

title: 391

text: The Huns begin their large-scale attack on the Eastern Roman Empire. They invade Armenia, Cappadocia, and enter parts of Syria, threatening Antioch.

title: 395

text: Eudoxia exiles John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople, for criticizing her sumptuous lifestyle. He is banished to the Caucasus in Armenia. Pope Innocent I at Rome orders a synod to reinstate the bishop, but his envoys are imprisoned. Atticus becomes the new bishop of Constantinople.

title: AD 404

text: Veh Mihr Shapur, Sasanian military officer and Marzban of Armenia

title: AD 442

text: May 26 – Battle of Vartanantz: King Yazdegerd II defeats the Armenian army (66,000 men) under their rebel leader Vartan Mamikonian on the Avarayr Plain (Armenia). Despite the loss of Mamikonian, who is killed, the Armenians consider this battle to have been a moral and religious victory, since Yazdegerd, out of respect for their efforts, allows them to remain Christian. The anniversary is a national and religious holiday.

title: 451

text: March – Emperor Marcian sends an embassy to Carthage, to end the Vandal raids in the Mediterranean from their strongholds in North Africa, and quells disturbances on the Armenian frontier.

title: 456

text: War with Sassanid Persia: Emperor Anastasius I refuses to pay a share of the cost of defending the Caucasian Gates, through which nomadic tribes have come for raids on Persia and the Byzantine Empire. King Kavadh I invades Armenia and captures Theodosiopolis.

title: AD 502

text: Justinian I appoints Belisarius to command the Eastern army in Armenia and on the Byzantine-Persian frontier.

title: 527

text: Gothic War: Vitiges strengthens the garrisons of various towns and besieges Ariminum. Byzantine forces under the Armenian general Narses arrive at Picenum.

title: 538

text: Sittas, Byzantine general, suppresses a revolt in Armenia in protest against heavy taxation. During the campaign he is killed by Artabanes, leader of the revolt.

title: 538

text: Emperor Justinian I recalls Belisarius from Italy to handle the situation in Armenia. He arrives in Upper Mesopotamia and attacks the fortress city of Nisbis. After an unsuccessful siege he ravages the countryside.

title: 541

text: Lazic War – Justinian I sends a Byzantine army (30,000 men) to Armenia. The Persians, severely outnumbered, are forced to retreat, but at Dvin the Byzantines are defeated by a force of 4,000 men in an ambush, and are completely routed.

title: 542

text: King Khosrau I signs a five year truce with the Byzantine Empire, but war continues to ravage the Caucasus region, especially in Armenia.

title: 545

text: Mermeroes stations a garrison of 3,000 men in the stronghold of Petra, and marches to Armenia. The Persians, lacking sufficient supplies, secure the supply routes and plunder Lazica.

title: 548

text: Emperor Justinian I appoints Bessas commander (magister militum) of Armenia, and entrusts him with the war in Lazica (Georgia).

title: 550

text: The churches of Lazica (Georgia) and Armenia split. While the Armenian Church remains independent, the Georgian church unites with the Byzantine Empire. This ecclesiastical union deepens political and cultural contact between the two states. As a sign of Lazica's status vis-à-vis Byzantium, Lazic princes are vested with honorific titles of the Byzantine court, including kouropalates, or "minister of the imperial palace" (approximate date).

title: 550

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War of 572–591: Emperor Justin II refuses to pay the annual tribute to Khosrau I, putting an end to the 50-year peace treaty established ten years earlier. The Armenians are considered allies to the Byzantine Empire, and Justin sends a Byzantine army into Persian territory, besieging the fortress city of Nisibis (modern Turkey).

title: 572

text: Byzantine-Sassanid War: King Khosrau I seeks peace, but dies before an agreement can be reached. The Mesopotamian front becomes stalemated, and Maurice (magister militum of the East) fortifies the borders in Armenia and Syria.

title: 579

text: Autumn – Maurice elevates John Mystacon to magister militum per Orientem. He sends a Byzantine expeditionary force to Arzanene (Armenia), where they fight a pitched battle at the river Nymphius (Batman River).

title: 582

text: The Armenian bishop Kardutsat goes with 7 priests, on a missionary trip to the steppes north of the Caucasus. He succeeds in baptizing many Huns and in translating books into their language.

title: 585

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: Emperor Maurice defeats the Persian forces under Bahrām Chobin at Nisibis (modern Turkey), and drives them back into Armenia.

title: 590

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: Emperor Maurice, seeing an opportunity to end the prolonged war to the advantage of Constantinople, assists Khosrau II to regain the Persian throne. He sends a Byzantine army (35,000 men) under Narses into Mesopotamia, through Syria. At the same time, an expeditionary force in Armenia advances through Caucasian Iberia into Media (modern Azerbaijan).

title: 591

text: Byzantine–Persian War: King Khosrau II launches an offensive against Constantinople, to avenge Maurice's death, his "friend and father", and tries to reconquer Byzantine territory. Narses, governor of Upper Mesopotamia, rebels against Phocas at the city of Edessa and requests aid from the Persians. Khosrau sends an expeditionary force to Armenia and crosses the Euphrates.

title: 602

text: Byzantine–Persian War: King Khosrau II invades Armenia, and raids deep into Anatolia through the Byzantine provinces of Cappadocia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Bithynia.

title: 608

text: Byzantine–Sasanian War: Emperor Heraclius advances with an expeditionary force (40,000 men) along the Araxes River, destroying the fortress city of Dvin, capital of Armenia, and Nakhchivan (modern Azerbaijan). At Ganzak, Heraclius defeats the Persian army and destroys the famous fire temple at Takht-e Soleymān, an important Zoroastrian shrine. He winters his army in Caucasian Albania to gather forces for the next year.

title: 624

text: Spring – Byzantine–Sasanian War: Emperor Heraclius sweeps through southern Armenia with a 50,000-man expeditionary force, recapturing most of the Byzantine fortresses lost to the Persians ten and fifteen years earlier. The army of Shahrbaraz, still in Anatolia, is now cut off completely. Hearing from Byzantine agents (showing him letters) that King Khosrau II, dissatisfied with his failure to capture Constantinople, is planning to have him executed, he surrenders to Heraclius, refusing to join the Byzantine army against his ungrateful sovereign.

title: 627

text: February 11 – Emperor Heraclius, age 65, dies of dropsy at Constantinople after a 31-year reign. He reorganized the imperial administration, but lost Armenia, parts of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Byzantine Mesopotamia to the Muslim Arabs. Heraclius is succeeded by his sons Constantine III and Heraklonas.

title: 641

text: Emperor Constans II recognises Theodore Rshtuni as ruler of Armenia, after his successful campaign against the Muslims. He names him commander (nakharar) of the Armenian army.

title: 643

text: Emperor Constans II voluntarily surrenders Armenia to the Arabs, following a truce with Muawiyah, governor of Syria. Muawiyah grants the Armenians virtual autonomy, and appoints the nakharar Theodor Rshtuni as ruler of Armenia.

title: 653

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Constans II signs a peace treaty with the Rashidun Caliphate. He uses the pause to strengthen his defences, and consolidates Byzantine control over Armenia. Constans establishes the themata, dividing territorial command in Anatolia.

title: 659

text: Caliph Muawiyah I receives an invitation from Saborios, Byzantine commander of the troops in Armenia, to help overthrow Constantine IV in Constantinople. He sends a Muslim army under his son Yazid, against the Byzantine Empire.

title: 668

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Muslims conquer Armenia, Iberia and Colchis, the last remaining Byzantine holdings east of the Taurus Mountains. Emperor Justinian II is forced to agree to joint Byzantine-Arab control of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (approximate date).

title: 692

text: Umayyad troops invade Armenia, and secure the submission of Prince Smbat VI Bagratuni. The South Caucasus becomes a viceroyalty called al-Arminiya, and is divided into four regions: Caucasian Albania, Caucasian Iberia, the area around the Aras River, and Taron (modern Turkey).

title: 699

text: The Umayyad prince Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik captures the Byzantine stronghold of Theodosiopolis in Armenia.

title: 700

text: Arab conquest of Armenia: Umayyad prince Muhammad ibn Marwan invades the Byzantine Armenian provinces east of the Euphrates; local commander Baanes surrenders before a large Arab army, and the population accepts a Muslim governor.

title: 701

text: Arab conquest of Armenia: Large-scale Armenian rebellion against Muslim rule breaks out, with Byzantine support.

title: 702

text: Arab conquest of Armenia: The Muslim Arabs under Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik (a son of caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan) invade Armenia and subdue the anti-Arab revolt along with his uncle Muhammad ibn Marwan.

title: 704

text: Arab conquest of Armenia: Large-scale Armenian rebellion is suppressed by Muhammad ibn Marwan. He captures and deports Smbat VI Bagratuni and other leading princes. Many of the captured nakharar are gathered into churches and burned alive at Nakhchevan (modern Azerbaijan).

title: 705

text: April 25 – Battle of Bagrevand: The Abbasids put an end to an Armenian rebellion. Muslim control over Transcaucasia is solidified, while several major Armenian nakharar families, notably the Mamikonian, lose power and flee to the Byzantine Empire.

title: 775

text: Summer – Harun al-Rashid reaches as far as Chrysopolis, across the Bosporus Straits from the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. After the defection of the Armenian general Tatzates, Empress Irene accepts a three-year truce, including the annual payment of a tribute of 70,000 or 90,000 gold dinars, and the handing over of 10,000 silk garments. Harun releases all his captives (5,600 men), including chief minister Staurakios and other hostages.

title: 782

text: Ashot I ("the Great"), king of Armenia (approximate date)

title: 820

text: Smbat I, king of Armenia (approximate date)

title: 850

text: The monastery of Sevanavank, located on the shore of Lake Sevan (Armenia), is founded.

title: 874

text: Ashot I (the Great), king of Armenia

title: 890

text: December 28 – An earthquake destroys the city of Dvin in Armenia.

title: 893

text: 906 K'argop' earthquake: It takes place in the monastery K'argop', Armenia. The monastery is also known as Xotakerk', the monastery of the Vegetarians. The earthquake occurs approximately 150 years following the 735 Vayots Dzor Province earthquake, and affects the same region.

title: 906

text: Battle of Sevan: Sajid forces under Yusuf Beshir invade Armenia and besiege King Ashot II near Lake Sevan. After gathering a small force he attacks Beshir's camps and drives the enemy out of the country. Ashot starts a counter-offensive to rebuild the ruined cities and fortresses.

title: 921

text: Ashot II, king of Armenia (approximate date)

title: 929

text: Abas I, king of the Bagratuni dynasty (Armenia)

title: 953

text: Kiurike I, king of Tashir-Dzoraget (Armenia)

title: 989

text: Ashot-Sahak, king of Vaspurakan (Armenia)

title: 991

text: 995 Balu earthquake. It reportedly affected the Armenian areas of Balu, Cop'k (or Covk'), Palnatun (or Palin), and the districts of Hasteank and Xorjean. The areas affected were districts in what is currently the border area between Armenia and Turkey.

title: 995

text: Gurgen IV, king of Vaspurakan (Armenia)

title: 1003

text: Sultan Tughril leads a large Seljuk army out of Azerbaijan into Armenia, possibly to consolidate his frontier, while providing an incentive to his Turkoman allies in the form of plunder. Tughril divides his army into four columns, ordering three to veer off to the north to raid into central and northern Armenia, while he takes the fourth column towards Lake Van. The Seljuk Turks capture and sack the fortress city of Artchesh, after an 8-day siege.

title: 1054

text: The 17-year-old Marco Polo departs from Venice with his father and uncle Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, to set off for Asia to meet the Mongolian emperor Kublai Khan (the grandson of Genghis Khan) at his court in Beijing, China. They sail across the Mediterranean Sea and travel overland, crossing Armenia, Persia and the Pamir Mountains.

title: 1271

text: The Holy Redeemer khachkar, believed to be one of the finest examples of that style of art, is carved in Haghpat (modern Armenia).

title: 1273

text: Spring – Arghun Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate, sends an embassy under Rabban Bar Sauma with the mission of contracting a military alliance against the Mamluk Sultanate and take the city of Jerusalem. He travels with a large retinue (bearing gifts and letters) and 30 riding animals from Tabriz through Armenia to Trebizond. Bar Sauma arrives in Constantinople and receives an audience with Emperor Andronikos II (Palaiologos).

title: 1287

text: Mamluk forces under Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil accompanied by his vizier Ibn al-Sal'us arrive in Damascus. Khalil travels via Aleppo to besiege the castle of Rumkale (Qal'at ar-Rum, "Castle of the Romans"), the official seat of Stephen IV, patriarch of Armenia. The Mamluks besiege the castle with more than 30 catapults and capture it after 30 days.

title: 1292

text: Bairam Khawaja establishes the independent principality of the Kara Koyunlu (Turkomans of the Black Sheep Empire), in modern-day Armenia.

title: 1379

text: Qara Muhammad succeeds Bairam Khawaja, as ruler of the Kara Koyunlu ("Black Sheep Turkomans"), in modern-day Armenia and northern Iraq.

title: 1384

text: May 16 – John II of Cyprus, King of Cyprus and Armenia and also titular King of Jerusalem from 1432 to 1458 (d. 1458)

title: 1418

text: July 2 – At Erciş in what is now Turkey, Iskandar ibn Yusuf is crowned as the Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu, a kingdom encompassing what are now eastern Turkey, northwestern Iran and northern Iraq, northern Armenia and all of Azerbaijan.

title: 1421

text: December – In the Middle East, traveller Pietro Della Valle marries Jowaya, daughter of a Nestorian Christian father and an Armenian mother, in Baghdad. The couple then sets off (1617) to find the Shah in Isfahan.

title: 1616

text: March 4 – Battle of Halidzor in Armenia: A small group of defenders overcomes a much larger Ottoman Empire army.

title: 1727

text: October 1 – Russo-Persian War, 1826–1828: The Russians under Ivan Paskevich storm Yerevan, ending a millennium of Muslim domination in Armenia.

title: 1827

text: April 22 – Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia declare their independence from Russia as the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic.

title: 1918

text: May 28 – Armenia and Azerbaijan declare their independence as the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic respectively.

title: 1918

text: December 30 – Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Republic (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) come together to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

title: 1922

text: January 8 – Three bombs explode in Moscow within 37 minutes, killing seven. The bombings are attributed to an Armenian separatist group.

title: 1977

text: May 5 – The Bishkek Protocol between Armenia and Azerbaijan is signed in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, effectively freezing the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

title: 1994

text: October 27 – Armenian parliament shooting: Gunmen open fire in Armenia's National Assembly building, killing Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, Parliament Chairman Karen Demirchyan, and six other members.

title: 1999

text: January 25 – Armenia and Azerbaijan join the Council of Europe.

title: 2001

text: July 15 – Caspian Airlines Flight 7908, en route from Tehran, Iran, to Yerevan, Armenia crashes into the Jannatabad village in Qazvin Province; killing all 168 on board.

title: 2009

text: December 9 – Parliamentary elections were held in Armenia on 9 December 2018.

title: 2018

text: February 25 – The Armenian military calls for prime minister Nikol Pashinyan to resign. Pashinyan accuses the military of attempting a coup d'état.

title: 2021

text: September 12 – September 2022 Armenia–Azerbaijan clashes: Azerbaijan attacks Armenian positions near the cities of Vardenis, Goris, Sotk and Jermuk, and occupies certain areas of its territory along the Armenia–Azerbaijan border. Over the next few days, more than 100 Armenian soldiers are killed in the clashes, while Azerbaijan acknowledges 71 fatalities among its forces.

title: 2022

text: September 19 – Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: Azerbaijan launches a military offensive against the Armenia-backed Republic of Artsakh, which ends with a swift Azerbaijani victory. Protests erupt in Armenia, Artsakh announces the dissolution of government institutions, and over 100,000 ethnic Armenians flee Nagorno-Karabakh.

title: 2023

text: August 8 – Armenia and Azerbaijan sign a peace deal to end 37-year-old hostilities regarding the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

title: 2025


slug: armenian-kingdom-of-cilicia

label: Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia

description: Armenian Middle Ages state (1080–1375)

text: Philaretos Brachamios abandons his claim to the Byzantine throne, on being appointed governor of Antioch, a foundation of the later Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.

title: 1078

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: The Rubenid Principality of Cilicia gains independence after its founder, Ruben I, succeeds in establishing his authority in the mountainous regions of Cilicia.

title: 1080

section: Births

text: Leo I, prince of Cilician Armenia

title: 1080

text: February 14 – Leo I, prince of Armenia

title: 1140

date: April 8

text: April 8 – Emperor John II Komnenos Komnenos dies of a poisoned arrow wound while hunting wild boar on Mount Taurus in Cilicia. He is succeeded by his 24-year-old son Manuel I, who is chosen as his successor, in preference to his elder surviving brother Isaac. Manuel dispatches John Axouchos, his commander-in-chief (megas domestikos), to Constantinople ahead of him – with orders to arrest Isaac in the Great Palace.

title: 1143

text: Ruben III, ruler of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (d. 1187)

title: 1145

text: Autumn – Emperor Manuel I Komnenos sets out from Constantinople at the head of an expeditionary army. He marches to Cilicia; and while the main army follows the coast road eastwards Manuel hurries ahead with a force of only 500 cavalry. He manages to surprise Thoros II "the Great", lord of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, who participated in the attack on Cyprus in 1156. Thoros flees into the mountains and Cilicia is occupied by the Byzantines.

title: 1158

date: February 6

text: February 6 – Thoros II ("the Great"), prince of Armenia

title: 1169

date: May 15

text: May 15 – Mleh I, prince of Armenia

title: 1175

text: Saladin intervenes in a conflict between the Zengids of Mosul and the Artuqids. He persuades the Seljuk sultanate of Rum not to become involved and proceeds to raid Cilician Armenia.

title: 1180

section: Events › By place › Levant

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: June 10

text: June 10 – Frederick I drowns while crossing (or bathing in) the Göksu River near Selucia (modern-day Silifke) in Armenian Cilicia. The German Crusaders are demoralized and exhausted by the summer heat, Frederick VI takes over the command of his father, carrying with him the emperor's body preserved in a barrel of vinegar. Some of the German nobles decide to return home with their followers; Frederick continues with his army (some 5,000 men) and eventually reaches Antioch, on June 21.

title: 1190

section: Events › By place › Third Crusade

date: October

text: October – Leo I ("Lord of the Mountains"), ruler of Armenian Cilicia, invites Bohemond III of Antioch to Bagras, ostensibly to resolve their differences. Upon Bohemond's arrival, Leon captures him and his family, and takes them to the capital of Sis.

title: 1194

text: Sybilla of Lusignan, queen of Lesser Armenia (d. 1230)

title: 1198

section: Religion & Belief

date: January 6

text: January 6; Prince Leo II of Cilician Armenia crowned as Leo I — king of Armenia

title: 1198

text: Hethum I, King of Armenia, ruler of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (d. 1270)

title: 1213

date: May 2

text: May 2 – King Leo II (or Levon) of Armenian Cilicia dies, leaving only two daughters. The elder, Stephanie, is the wife of John I; the younger, Isabella, daughter of Princess Sibylla of Cyprus and Jerusalem, is three years old. Leo has promised the succession to his nephew, Raymond-Roupen of Antioch, but on his death-bed he names Isabella as his heir.

title: 1219

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: May 2 – Leo II (or Levon), king of Armenian Cilicia (b. 1150)

title: 1219

text: Summer – Raymond-Roupen, prince of Antioch, invades Armenian Cilicia, together with his mother, Alice, and establishes himself at Tarsus. There he waits for help from the Knights Hospitaller. Constantine of Baberon, a powerful Armenian nobleman and regent for Queen Isabella, marches with his forces to the Tarsus stronghold.

title: 1220

section: Culture & Society

date: May 14

text: May 14 – At the age of 11, Queen Isabella (Zabel), daughter of the dead King Leo, is formally crowned as the Queen of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, in a ceremony at the Armenian capital, Sis.

title: 1226

section: Events › April – June

text: Hethum II, king of Cilician Armenia (assassinated 1307)

title: 1266

section: Climate & Environment

text: An earthquake in Cilicia occurs in 1268 northeast of the city of Adana. Over 60,000 people perished in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in southern Asia Minor.

title: 1268

text: Margaret of Lusignan, queen consort of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (d. 1296)

title: 1276

text: Smbat I Hetumian (or Sempad), king of Cilician Armenia (d. 1310)

title: 1277

text: Constantine I (or III), co-ruler of Cilician Armenia (d. 1310)

title: 1278

text: Spring – Mamluk forces led by the 19-year-old Sultan Al-Said Barakah and Qalawun ("the Thousander") invade Cilician Armenia; a revolt in Egypt while they are away force Barakah to abdicate. In August, Qalawun takes over the government in Cairo and proclaims himself sultan. He sends Solamish, youngest son of former Sultan Baibars, into exile. Meanwhile, Sunqur al-Ashqar, Mamluk viceroy of Damascus, refuses to accept Qalawun's authority and begins a rebellion in Syria.

title: 1279

date: September

text: September – Two Mongol armies (some 50,000 men) advance into Syria. One is commanded by Abaqa Khan, who attacks the Mamluk fortresses along the Euphrates frontier. The second, led by his brother Möngke Temür makes contact with Leo III, king of Cilician Armenia, and then marches down through Aintab and Aleppo into the Orontes valley, where he is joined by Knights Hospitallerr and some French mercenaries. Meanwhile, Sultan Qalawun assembles his Mamluk forces at Damascus.

title: 1281

text: Oshin, king of Cilician Armenia (House of Lampron) (d. 1320)

title: 1282

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Keran of Lampron, queen of Cilician Armenia (b. 1260)

title: 1285

text: Al-Ashraf Khalil returns to Damascus and assembles an army to attack Sis, the capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. An Armenian embassy arrives in Damascus, and reaches a settlement with Khalil. The cities of Til Hemdun, Marash and Behesni are given to the Mamluks in order to maintain peace.

title: 1292

date: July 23

text: July 23 – Thoros III (or Toros), king of Cilician Armenia (b. 1271)

title: 1298

date: December

text: December – Mongol forces (some 10,000 men) led by Ghazan Khan cross the Euphrates River and invade Syria. They continue south, and successfully take Aleppo. There, Ghazan is joined by forces from his vassal state of Cilician Armenia. King Hethum II leads the Armenian army (which includes Templar and Hospitaller knights). He participates during the Mongol offensive and regains all the Armenian territories which have previously been lost to the Mamluks.

title: 1299

text: November 17 – The Mongol General Bilarghu hosts the Armenian Kings Hethum II and Leo III at a banquet at his in castle at Anazarbus (now in ruins near the Turkish village of Dilekkaya). After the guests complete the banquet, Bilarghu massacres all of the Armenian royalty and nobles.

title: 1307

section: Events › October – December

date: April 17

text: April 17 – Constantine III of Armenia, king of Cilician Armenia (d. 1362)

title: 1313

date: July 1

text: July 1 – Al-Nasir Muhammad, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, asks for aid from the Ikhanate Mongol ruler of Iran, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, for help in modern-day southern Turkey. Al-Nasir has started a campaign against the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, led by King Oshin, and Pope John XXII has recently dispatched troops to aid the Armenians. By the time the Ikhanate troops arrive, a ceasefire has been negotiated between the Muslims and the Christians.

title: 1322

section: Events › July – September

text: Constantine IV, ruler of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (modern-day southern Turkey), is assassinated; he is succeeded by his distant cousin Leo V.

title: 1373

section: Events › Date unknown

date: July 26

text: July 26 – Levon of Lusignan arrives at Sis, capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and now a set of ruins near the town of Kozan, Adana in Turkey, to take the Cilician throne left vacant by the death of King Constantine IV. Marie of Korikos, Constantine's widow, has been ruling as the regent and supports Levon's the election by Cilician nobles.

title: 1374

section: Events › July–September

date: April 14

text: April 14 – The Mamluks from Egypt complete their conquest of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. King Levon V is imprisoned for several years in Cairo, until a ransom is paid by King John I of Castile.

title: 1375

section: Events › April–June

date: November 11

text: November 11 – Janus succeeds his father, James I, as King of Cyprus and claimant to the throne of Armenian Cilicia.

title: 1398

section: Events › October–December


slug: armenians

label: Armenians

description: ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands

year_label: 696 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: 696 BC—Possible migration of the Armenians (approximate date).

title: 690s BC

section: Events and trends

section: Deaths

date: February 17

text: February 17 – Mesrob, Armenian monk and linguist (b. 362)

title: 440

section: Conflict & Security

text: King Yazdegerd II summons the leading Armenian nobles to the Persian capital Ctesiphon, pressuring them to cut their ties with the Western Church.

title: 450

section: Events › By place › Persia

date: May 26

text: May 26 – Battle of Vartanantz: King Yazdegerd II defeats the Armenian army (66,000 men) under their rebel leader Vartan Mamikonian on the Avarayr Plain (Armenia). Despite the loss of Mamikonian, who is killed, the Armenians consider this battle to have been a moral and religious victory, since Yazdegerd, out of respect for their efforts, allows them to remain Christian. The anniversary is a national and religious holiday.

title: 451

text: The Armenians revolt against Persian rule, in an uprising that continues until 484. Led by Vahan Mamikonian, nephew of the late Vartan, they obtain religious and political freedom in return for military aid. Vahan is installed as governor (marzban).

title: 481

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Nvarsak Treaty is concluded between the Persians and Armenians.

title: 484

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Heraclius assembles a large army consisting of contingents of Byzantines, Slavs, Franks, Georgians, Armenians, and Christian Arabs. He establishes a base at Yaqusah (near Gadara), close to the edge of the Golan Heights, protecting the vital main road from Egypt to Damascus. The base is protected by deep valleys and precipitous cliffs, well supplied with water and grazing.

title: 636

text: Emperor Constans II voluntarily surrenders Armenia to the Arabs, following a truce with Muawiyah, governor of Syria. Muawiyah grants the Armenians virtual autonomy, and appoints the nakharar Theodor Rshtuni as ruler of Armenia.

title: 653

text: Byzantine–Bulgarian War: Emperor Constantine V builds a series of fortifications along the Byzantine frontier on the Danube, and starts settling Christian Armenians and Syrians in the Thracesian Theme. In response, Kormisosh, ruler (khagan) of the Bulgarian Empire, demands the payment of tribute. Constantine refuses, and the Bulgars raid into Thrace, reaching the Anastasian Wall stretching between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara (near the outskirts of Constantinople).

title: 756

date: June 5

text: June 5 – Emperor Theophilos, 16, marries the Armenian noblewoman Theodora, in the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. He chooses her during a representation of a bride-show; she becomes empress (Augusta) of the Byzantine Empire.

title: 830

text: The Armenian prince Bagrat II begins a rebellion against Caliph Al-Mutawakkil, of the Abbasid Caliphate.

title: 849

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Caliphate

date: October 25

text: October 25 – The Hagia Sophia at Constantinople is struck by a great earthquake, causing the collapse of the western dome arch. Basil II asks the Armenian architect Trdat, the creator of the Cathedral of Ani, to direct the repairs.

title: 989

section: Events › By topic › Art

date: June

text: June – Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18): Shāh Abbas I of Persia's Safavid army captures the city of Yerevan from the Ottoman Empire after a siege. At this time the Shāh begins the expulsion of Armenians from Jolfa to New Julfa in his capital of Isfahan; more than 25,000 die during the exodus.

title: 1604

text: Ottoman troops burn 3,000 Armenians alive in Urfa.

title: 1895

section: Events › December

text: April 14 – Adana massacre: Ottoman Turks kill 15,000–30,000 Armenian Christians, in the Adana Vilayet.

title: 1909

section: Events › March–April

date: April 10

text: April 10 – First Nagorno-Karabakh War: Maraga massacre – At least 43 Armenian civilians are killed as their village of Maraga, Azerbaijan, is captured and destroyed by the Azerbaijani Armed Forces.

title: 1992

section: Events › April

date: January 27

text: January 27 – First Nagorno-Karabakh War: in the disputed territory of Nagorno-Karabakh, fighting between Armenians and Azeris leaves at least 60 people dead.

title: 1992

section: Events › January

text: January 6 – The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic is proclaimed by the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh.

title: 1992

date: September 19

text: September 19 – Nagorno-Karabakh conflict: Azerbaijan launches a military offensive against the Armenia-backed Republic of Artsakh, which ends with a swift Azerbaijani victory. Protests erupt in Armenia, Artsakh announces the dissolution of government institutions, and over 100,000 ethnic Armenians flee Nagorno-Karabakh.

title: 2023

section: Events › September


slug: arnulf-duke-of-bavaria

label: Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria

description: German duke

text: German dukes Henry the Fowler of Saxony and Arnulf I (the Bad) of Bavaria claim themselves to be sovereign princes, not recognizing the authority of their overlord, King Conrad I of the East Frankish Kingdom, as he is not a Carolingian. Duke Erchanger II of Swabia and Conrad's brother, Duke Eberhard III of Franconia, support the Conradines.

title: 912

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Battle of the Inn: The Hungarians invade Bavaria, Swabia and Northern Burgundy. At their return they face the combined armies of Arnulf (duke of Bavaria), Erchanger and Burchard II (dukes of Swabia), who defeat them at Aschbach near the Inn River (modern Germany).

title: 913

text: The Hungarians, after attacking Swabia, sack and burn Basel (modern Switzerland). They invade Lorraine in Lotharingia, destroying Verdun and Moyenmoutier, and many monasteries in Alsace. Duke Arnulf I (the Bad) with Hungarian military aid, reconquers his land from King Conrad I of the East Frankish Kingdom. After this event, Bavaria and Swabia agree to pay tribute to the Hungarians.

title: 917

date: December 23

text: December 23 – King Conrad I, injured at one of his battles with Arnulf I (the Bad), dies at his residence in Weilburg Castle after a 7-year reign. On his deathbed Conrad persuades his younger brother Eberhard III to offer the East Frankish crown to Henry the Fowler, the duke of Saxony. Conrad is buried in Fulda Cathedral (also the burial place of Boniface) in Germany.

title: 918

text: Summer – Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria ("the Bad"), is elected as anti-king by the East-Frankish nobles in opposition to Henry I. Burchard II, duke of Swabia, submits to Henry's rule — allowing him to retain administrative control over his duchy. After an absence of nearly 15 years, the Magyars raid Bavaria and Northern Italy again, sacking the Po Valley (see Hungarian invasions of Europe).

title: 919

section: Events › By Place › Europe

text: Summer – King Henry I (the Fowler) defeats his rival Arnulf I (the Bad), duke of Bavaria, in two campaigns. Arnulf is besieged at Regensburg and forced to accept peace negotiations, recognising Henry as sole sovereign of the East Frankish Kingdom (Germany).

title: 921

text: Early 929 – Henry the Fowler invades Bohemia from the north and marches on Prague. Duke Arnulf I of Bavaria invades Bohemia from the south. The Bohemians capitulate.

title: 929

text: Spring – Arnulf I ("the Bad") of Bavaria invades Italy, crossing through the Upper Adige (modern Tyrol). He proceeds towards Verona to join his supporters. King Hugh of Provence takes a Burgundian army against him, and defeats Arnulf at Gossolengo, forcing him to return to Bavaria.

title: 935

date: July 14

text: July 14 – Arnulf I, duke of Bavaria

title: 937

text: Winter – King Otto I cedes the Duchy of Bavaria to his brother Henry I. To secure his rule, Henry is married to Judith, a daughter of Arnulf I ("the Bad"), and appoints a series of counts palatine.

title: 947


slug: arnulf-of-carinthia

label: Arnulf of Carinthia

description: king of East Francia

text: Summer – Charles the Fat designates his illegitimate son Bernard as his heir, ignoring the claims of his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia (illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria), and Charles the Simple (5-year-old son of King Louis the Stammerer). The Frankish bishops protest, so Charles summons Pope Adrian III to an assembly in Worms, to resolve the issue. Adrian leaves Rome in the hands of Bishop John of Pavia and heads to Germany, but dies on the way, just after crossing the River Po.

title: 885

date: November 17

text: November 17 – East Frankish magnates revolt against the inept emperor Charles III (the Fat) in an assembly at Frankfurt, and depose him. His nephew Arnulf of Carinthia, the illegitimate son of former king Carloman of Bavaria, is elected ruler of the East Frankish Kingdom. Charles yields his throne without a struggle, and retires to Neidingen.

title: 887

text: Winter – King Arnulf of Carinthia leads an East Frankish expedition into Italy, after he is recognized as overlord of France and Burgundy. Arnulf descends with an army over the Brenner Pass, and meets King Berengar I at a peace conference at Trento. Berengar grants him two counties in the Val d'Adige (Northern Italy), and does homage to Arnulf as overlord. In turn, Arnulf confirms Berengar as king of Lombardia, and returns to Germany.

title: AD 888

text: Battle of Leuven: Viking raiders on the Dyle River (near Leuven), in modern-day Belgium, suffer a crushing defeat by Frankish forces under King Arnulf of Carinthia.

title: 891

text: Summer – Poppo II, duke of Thuringia (Central Germany), is deposed by King Arnulf of Carinthia. East Frankish forces and their Magyar (Hungarian) allies invade Great Moravia.

title: 892

text: An East Frankish expeditionary force under Zwentibold, the eldest son of King Arnulf of Carinthia, crosses the Alps into Friuli. He makes junction at Verona, with the army of the deposed king Berengar I, and proceeds to lay siege to Pavia. After a three-month campaign, Zwentibold receives orders to head back to Bavaria, in case of a Magyar intervention.

title: 893

text: Spring – King Arnulf of Carinthia invades Italy at the head of an East Frankish expeditionary army, joining up with the deposed king Berengar I at Verona. He conquers Brescia after little resistance, and sacks Bergamo after a one-month siege. The cities of Milan and Pavia open their doors to Arnulf. Emperor Guy III escapes from Pavia, to hide in the mountains of Spoleto (Umbria).

title: 894

text: King Odo (or Eudes) takes a large army against Rheims, and forces anti-king Charles the Simple to flee to Germany. King Arnulf of Carinthia, throwing off his agreements with Odo, charges his illegitimate son Zwentibold to invade the West Frankish Kingdom, and re-install Charles on the throne.

title: 895

date: February

text: February – King Arnulf of Carinthia invades Italy at the head of an East Frankish expeditionary army. He storms Rome (the Leonine City), and has himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Formosus at St. Peter's. Arnulf sets out to establish his authority in Spoleto, but suffers a stroke; he is forced to call off the campaign, and returns to Bavaria.

title: 896

date: December 8

text: December 8 – Arnulf of Carinthia, king of the East Frankish Kingdom

title: 899


slug: arpad

label: Árpád

description: Grand Prince of the Hungarians

section: Births

text: Árpád, Grand Prince of the Hungarians (approximate date)

title: 845

text: The Magyars, an Ugric tribe from the steppe of Central Asia, move west under the leadership of Árpád. They are pushed by their rivals, the Pechenegs, into the Balkan Peninsula, and become entangled in a war between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire. The Magyars head north and settle in Great Moravia.

title: 889

text: Árpád, head of the confederation of the Hungarian tribes, comes to an agreement with the prince of the Moravians, Svatopluk II, that Hungarian and Moravian armies will together expel the Eastern Franks from Pannonia.

title: 894

text: The Magyars are expelled from western Siberia, and settle in the Carpathian Basin, under the leadership of Árpád (the traditional date of 896 held during the 20th century has proved to be erroneous). Emperor Leo VI (the Wise) seeks aid from the Magyars, and after crossing the Danube on Byzantine ships, they ravage Bulgarian territory.

title: 895

text: Battle of Southern Buh: Bulgarian forces under Simeon I ('the Great') defeat the Magyars, near the banks of the Southern Buh river (modern Ukraine). The Magyars withdraw from Bulgaria, and are forced to migrate to new pastures. Led by Árpád, they settle in the Carpathian Basin (modern Hungary).

title: 896

text: Spring – King Berengar I of Italy arranges a truce with the Hungarians, on payment of a tribute. Grand Prince Árpád withdraws from Italy, and begins raiding in Bavaria.

title: 905

section: Crime & Justice

text: Summer – Duke Mojmir II halts the advance of the plundering Hungarians under Grand Prince Árpád in Great Moravia (approximate date).

title: 906

title: 907

date: July 4

text: July 4–6 – Battle of Pressburg: At "Brezalauspurc" (probably modern-day Bratislava in Slovakia), the advancing East Frankish army (60,000 men) is annihilated by the Hungarians led by Grand Prince Árpád. Duke Luitpold and Archbishop Dietmar I are killed, together with 19 dukes, 2 bishops and 3 abbots. The East Frankish Kingdom loses control of the March of Pannonia.

title: 907

date: July

text: July – The Magyars (Hungarians), led by Zoltán, only son of the late Grand Prince Árpád, attack Swabia, Franconia and Saxony. Small units penetrate as far as Bremen, burning the city.

title: 915


slug: artaxerxes-ii

label: Artaxerxes II

description: The 10th Achaemenid Emperor (404–358 BC)

year_label: 436 BCE

text: Artaxerxes II, king of Persia (approximate date) (d. 358 BC)

title: 436 BC

year_label: 404 BCE

text: The Persian King Darius II dies of an illness in Babylon. He is succeeded by his son Artaxerxes II (Memnon—'the Mindful').

title: 404 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian Empire

year_label: 401 BCE

text: Cyrus the Younger uses a quarrel with Tissaphernes over the Ionian cities as a pretext for gathering a large army and also pretends to prepare an expedition to Pisidia, in the Taurus Mountains. Cyrus starts out with about 15,220 men, of whom 10,400 are Greek mercenaries. When he reaches the Euphrates River at Thapsacus, he announces that he is marching against Artaxerxes II. He advances unopposed into Babylonia; but Artaxerxes, warned at the last moment by Tissaphernes, hastily gathers an army. The two forces meet in the Battle of Cunaxa, north of Babylon, where Cyrus is slain.

title: 401 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian empire

year_label: 400 BCE

text: When the Greek cities of Ionia heard about Cyrus' defeat they knew Artaxerxes would want to exact his revenge on them for supporting Cyrus. They sent several embassies to Sparta to request the Lacedaemonians assistance. The Spartans sent Thibron who recruits 5,000 soldiers to aid the Ionian Greeks.

title: 400 BC

section: Events › By place

text: Artaxerxes II, king of Persia, appoints Tissaphernes to take over all the districts in Asia Minor over which Artaxerxes II's brother Cyrus had been governor before his revolt.

title: 400 BC

year_label: 397 BCE

text: Called on by the Ionians to assist them against the Persian King Artaxerxes II, King Agesilaus II of Sparta launches an ambitious campaign in Asia Minor.

title: 397 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 395 BCE

text: The Persian satrap Tissaphernes' enemy Parysatis, mother of Cyrus, succeeds in persuading Persian King Artaxerxes II to have him executed at Colossae, Phrygia (now Turkey). Parysatis cannot forgive Tissaphernes for the rough treatment he has handed out to her favourite son, the late Cyrus.

title: 395 BC

year_label: 392 BCE

text: The Persian general, Struthas is dispatched by King Artaxerxes II to take command of the satrapy of Sardis, replacing Tiribazus, and to pursue an anti-Spartan policy.

title: 392 BC

year_label: 388 BCE

text: Concerned about the revival of Athenian imperialist ambitions, the Persian King Artaxerxes II and King Agesilaus II of Sparta enter into an alliance. Sparta also seeks and gains the support of Dionysius I of Syracuse.

title: 388 BC

year_label: 373 BCE

text: The Persian King Artaxerxes II launches an invasion of Egypt to bring that country back under Persian rule. The invasion is led by Pharnabazus. After initial successes, the Greek mercenaries fighting for the Persians push on towards Memphis. However, King Nectanebo I is able to gather his forces and repulse the Persian invasion.

title: 373 BC

year_label: 367 BCE

text: Theban leader Pelopidas goes on an embassy to the Persian king Artaxerxes II and induces him to propose a settlement of the Greek states' disputes according to the wishes of the Thebans. Artaxerxes II issues an edict consisting of peace terms for the Greeks, but his edict is not obeyed by any of the Greek states.

title: 367 BC

year_label: 366 BCE

text: In Persia, a number of satraps of King Artaxerxes II begin a revolt, in alliance with Athens, Sparta, and Egypt, that lasts until 358 BC.

title: 366 BC

year_label: 362 BCE

text: Mausolus of Caria joins the revolt of the satraps of Anatolia against the Persian king Artaxerxes II.

title: 362 BC

year_label: 358 BCE

section: Religion & Belief

text: Artaxerxes III ("Ochus") succeeds Artaxerxes II as King of Persia and restores central authority over the Persian empire's satraps. To secure his throne he puts to death most of his relatives.

title: 358 BC

text: Artaxerxes II, King of Persia (b. c. 436 BC)

title: 358 BC


slug: artaxerxes-iii

label: Artaxerxes III

description: 11th Achaemenid Emperor (358–338 BC)

year_label: 425 BCE

text: Artaxerxes III, king of the Persian Empire (approximate date)

title: 425 BC

title: 358 BC

year_label: 356 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Achaemenid King Artaxerxes III orders all the satraps (governors) of his empire to dismiss their mercenaries. The Athenians, who have originally approved their mercenaries' collaboration with Artabazus of Phrygia, order them to leave due to their fear of Achaemenid support for the rebellion of Chios, Rhodes, and Cos. Thebes follows suit and withdraws its mercenaries.

title: 356 BC

year_label: 355 BCE

text: King Artaxerxes III of Persia forces Athens to conclude a peace which requires the city to leave Asia Minor and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.

title: 355 BC

year_label: 351 BCE

text: Encouraged by a failed effort at invasion of Egypt by King Artaxerxes III, Phoenicia and Cyprus revolt against Persia.

title: 351 BC

year_label: 350 BCE

section: Deaths

text: Idrieus, the second son of Hecatomnus, succeeds to the throne of Caria on the death of Artemisia II, the widow of his elder brother Mausolus. Shortly after his accession, at the request of the Persian king, Artaxerxes III, Idrieus equips a fleet of 40 triremes and assembles an army of 8,000 mercenary troops and despatches them against Cyprus, under the command of the Athenian general Phocion.

title: 350 BC

year_label: 349 BCE

text: Sidon is besieged by Persian forces. The Persian Empire reasserted its dominance over Egypt after Nectanebo II was forced to flee following the Persian military campaign under Artaxerxes III. The native Egyptian rule briefly came to an end, and the Persians regained control. This was just a precursor to the later events that would lead to Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt in the early 4th century BCE, ultimately ending Persian rule and ushering in the Hellenistic period.

title: 349 BC

year_label: 348 BCE

text: After being besieged by the Persian forces of King Artaxerxes III, Sidon is taken and its population is punished with great cruelty.

title: 348 BC

year_label: 343 BCE

text: The King of Persia, Artaxerxes III, personally leads the Persian forces invading Egypt. The Persians are keen to access Egypt's gold and corn supplies. The town of Pelusium in the Nile Delta puts up resistance, but Pharaoh Nectanebo II is forced to retreat to Memphis. As the situation deteriorates, Nectanebo II leaves for exile in Nubia. His departure marks the end of the 30th Dynasty, the last native house to rule Egypt.

title: 343 BC

year_label: 340 BCE

text: When King Philip II of Macedon invaded Perinthus and Byzantium, King Artaxerxes III of Persia sent support to those cities.

title: 340 BC

year_label: 338 BCE

text: The Persian general and vizier, the eunuch Bagoas, falls out of favour with King Artaxerxes III. Bagoas seeks to remain in office by replacing Artaxerxes with his youngest son Arses, whom he thinks will be easier to control. So Bagoas murders Artaxerxes III and all his sons, other than Arses, who is then placed on the throne by Bagoas. Artaxerxes IV Arses is little more than a puppet-king while Bagoas acts as the power behind the throne.

title: 338 BC

text: Artaxerxes III, king of Persia (murdered) (b. c. 425 BC)

title: 338 BC


description: British Field Marshal, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1828–1830, 1834 (1769-1852)

date: August 17

text: August 17 – Peninsular War: Battle of Roliça: A British-Portuguese army under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeats an outnumbered French army under General Henri Delaborde.

title: 1808

section: Events › July–September

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Peninsula War – Battle of Talavera: Sir Arthur Wellesley's British, Portuguese and Spanish army defeats a French force.

title: 1809

date: May 10

text: May 10–11 – Peninsular War – Battle of Grijó: the Anglo-Portuguese Army, commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, defeats the French army, commanded by Marshal Soult, in Portugal.

title: 1809

section: Events › April–June

date: September 27

text: September 27 - Peninsular War: Battle of Bussaco: Anglo-Portuguese forces under General Arthur Wellington repel several attacks of the French invasion force (65,000 men) under André Masséna at Bussaco. Wellington is forced to withdraw to the Lines of Torres Vedras after Masséna's troops outflank his positions. The French lose 522 dead and 3,612 wounded. The allied losses are 200 dead and 1,001 wounded.

title: 1810

date: May 3

text: May 3–5 – Peninsular War – Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro: An Anglo-Portuguese Army under General Arthur Wellington defeats the French forces under Marshal André Masséna.

title: 1811

date: August 12

text: August 12 – Peninsular War: The combined English and Portuguese army under the command of Wellington enters Madrid, following the Battle of Salamanca.

title: 1812

date: July 22

text: July 22 – Peninsular War – Battle of Salamanca: British forces led by the Earl of Wellington defeat French troops near Salamanca, Spain.

title: 1812

date: March 16

text: March 16–April 6 – Siege of Badajoz (Peninsular War): The Anglo-Portuguese Army, under the Earl of Wellington, besieges Badajoz, Spain and forces the surrender of the French garrison.

title: 1812

section: Events › January–March

date: February 15

text: February 15 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Garris: An Allied army led by the Duke of Wellington is victorious against the French under Jean Isidore Harispe.

title: 1814

section: Events › February

date: February 27

text: February 27 – War of the Sixth Coalition – Battle of Orthez: An Allied army led by the Duke of Wellington is victorious against the French under Jean-de-Dieu Soult.

title: 1814

text: Battle of Quatre Bras – Marshal Ney engages Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, resulting in a tactical and strategic draw.

title: 1815

section: Events › June

date: June 18

text: June 18 – Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Waterloo – Allied forces led by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher decisively, and this time permanently, defeat Napoleon.

title: 1815

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: January 22

text: January 22 – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, succeeds Lord Goderich as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

title: 1828

section: Culture & Society

date: August 14

text: August 14 – King's College London is founded by Royal Charter, under the patronage of King George IV and the Prime Minister, The Duke of Wellington.

title: 1829

date: November 22

text: November 22 – The Whig Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey succeeds Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

title: 1830

section: Events › October–December

date: December 10

text: December 10 – Sir Robert Peel succeeds The Duke of Wellington as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

title: 1834

date: November 14

text: November 14 – William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne becomes the last Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be dismissed by the British monarch. King William IV temporarily appoints Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, to form a caretaker government.

title: 1834


slug: arturo-toscanini

label: Arturo Toscanini

description: Italian conductor (1867–1957)

date: June 25

text: June 25 – Arturo Toscanini makes his conducting debut, with an Italian opera company visiting Rio de Janeiro.

title: 1886

text: December 10 – Giacomo Puccini's opera La fanciulla del West has its world première at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City, conducted by Arturo Toscanini and starring Enrico Caruso and Emmy Destinn.

title: 1910

section: Events › December

date: December 25

text: December 25 – At the age of 70, conductor Arturo Toscanini conducts the NBC Symphony Orchestra on radio for the first time, beginning his successful 17-year tenure with that orchestra. This first concert consists of music by Vivaldi (at a time when he is seldom played), Mozart, and Brahms. Millions tune in to listen, including U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.

title: 1937

text: December 10 – Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini leads a concert performance of the first half of Beethoven's Fidelio (minus its spoken dialogue) on NBC Radio, starring Rose Bampton. He chooses this opera for its political message: a statement against tyranny and dictatorship. Presenting it in German, Toscanini intends it as a tribute to the German people who are being oppressed by Hitler. The second half is broadcast a week later. The performance is later released on LP and CD, the first of 7 operas that Toscanini conducts on radio.

title: 1944

date: December 6

text: December 6 – Arturo Toscanini conducts a concert performance of the first half of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Otello, for a broadcast on NBC Radio in the United States. The second half of the opera is broadcast a week later.

title: 1947

date: April 3

text: April 3 – Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 is played on television in its entirety for the first time, in a series of concerts featuring Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra in the United States. The chorus is conducted by Robert Shaw.

title: 1948

section: Events › April

date: March 20

text: March 20 – Renowned Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini makes his television debut, conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra in an all-Wagner program in the United States.

title: 1948

section: Events › March

date: March 26

text: March 26 – The first half of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida, conducted by legendary conductor Arturo Toscanini, and performed in concert (i.e. no scenery or costumes), is telecast by NBC, live from Studio 8H at Rockefeller Center. The second half is telecast a week later. This is the only complete opera that Toscanini ever conducts on television.

title: 1949

text: December 6 – With the NBC Symphony Orchestra, conductor Arturo Toscanini performs what he claims is his favorite Beethoven symphony, Eroica, for the last time. The live performance is broadcast across the United States on radio, and later released on records and CD.

title: 1953

date: April 4

text: April 4 – Legendary symphony conductor Arturo Toscanini experiences a lapse of memory during a concert broadcast live from Carnegie Hall in New York City. At this concert's end, his retirement is announced, and he never conducts in public again.

title: 1954


slug: ascalon

label: Ascalon

description: ancient city in Israel

year_label: 674 BCE

text: Esarhaddon puts down a revolt in Ascalon supported by Taharqa, king of Kush and Egypt. In response, the Assyrians invade Egypt, but Taharqa is able to hold them off.

title: 674 BC

section: Events

text: Autumn – The Arabian forces under Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah storm Caesarea Maritima, capital of Byzantine Palestine, and effect their final capture of Ascalon (modern Israel). Caliph Umar I stops the Muslim invasion, and appoints Abu Ubaidah governor of Syria.

title: 638

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: August 10

text: August 10 – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon (supported by 1,200–1,300 knights) assemble at Yibna (Ibelin) – close to the coast and almost halfway from Jaffa to Ascalon.

title: 1099

section: Events › By place › First Crusade

date: September 7

text: September 7 – Battle of Ramla: A Crusader force (some 1,100 men) under Baldwin I defeats the invading Fatimids at Ramla (modern Israel). Baldwin plunders the Fatimid camp and the survivors flee to Ascalon.

title: 1101

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: Spring – A Fatimid expeditionary force (some 20,000 men) invades Palestine and launches attacks into the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Crusaders defeat a Fatimid rearguard near Ascalon, and capture the city after a 3-year siege. The Crusaders capture Caesarea Maritima with support of the Genoese fleet. A number of Genoese trading colonies are established along the Mediterranean coast.

title: 1102

date: May 27

text: May 27 – The Crusaders under Baldwin I break their way out of Jaffa, which is encircled by the Fatimid Army. A charge of the French cavalry breaks the enemy's ranks, and forces them to retreat to Ascalon.

title: 1102

date: May 26

text: May 26 – King Baldwin I captures Acre, the port is besieged from April, and blockaded by the Genoese and Pisan fleet. Baldwin promises a free passage to those who want to move to Ascalon, but the Italian sailors plunder the wealthy Muslim emigrants and kill many of them.

title: 1104

date: May 30

text: May 30 – The Venetian fleet arrives at Ascalon and instantly sets about attacking the Fatimid fleet. The Egyptians fall into a trap, caught between two Venetian squadrons, and are destroyed or captured. While sailing back to Acre, the Venetians capture a merchant-fleet of ten richly laden vessels.

title: 1123

section: Events › By date › April–June

text: Count Hugh II (du Puiset), in alliance with the Egyptian city of Ascalon, revolts against King Fulk V of Jerusalem, attempting to take Jaffa. Hugh submits to Fulk and is exiled for three years. While awaiting for a boat to Italy he is attacked by a Breton knight, but survives the attempted murder. Hugh retires to the Sicilian court of his cousin, King Roger II, who appoints him to the lordship of Gargano, where he dies soon afterwards.

title: 1134

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: The city of Ascalon is fortified with 53 towers by order of the 17-year-old Caliph Al-Zafir, as it is the most strategic frontier fortress of the Fatimid Caliphate.

title: 1150

date: August 19

text: August 19 – Siege of Ascalon: King Baldwin III of Jerusalem captures Ascalon, the last Fatimid fortress in Palestine. The citizens are allowed to leave in peace and return to Egypt.

title: 1153

date: October 20

text: October 20 – Amalric I invades Egypt again from Ascalon, sacking Bilbeis and threatening Cairo. In November, a Crusader fleet sails up the Nile and arrives in Lake Manzala, sacking the town of Tanis.

title: 1168

text: Summer – Egyptian troops led by Saladin begins a campaign that paves the way for further Muslim inroads into Christian territory. Al-Adil invades Palestine with the Egyptian army, and captures the strategic castle of Mirabel (Majdal Yaba). By mid-September, Saladin has captured the cities of Acre, Jaffa, Gaza and Ascalon (blockaded by the Egyptian fleet), along with some 50 Crusader castles.

title: 1187

section: Events › By place › Egypt

date: September 4

text: September 4 – King Guy of Lusignan is released by Saladin after Ascalon is forced to surrender. Guy and his wife, Queen Sibylla of Jerusalem, seek refuge in Tyre, which is defended by Conrad of Montferrat.

title: 1188

date: August 22

text: August 22 – Richard I leads the Crusader forces (some 15,000 men) out of Acre and marches south along the coast, being closely supported by the Crusader fleet, carrying most of the supplies. Meanwhile, Saladin has given his son Al-Afdal orders to remain close to the Crusader rearguard under Hugh III, and strengthens the Muslim garrison both in Jerusalem and Ascalon with 20,000 men each. Richard advances at an unexpectedly slow pace and decides to make camp near Haifa – which Saladin has dismantled shortly before the fall of Acre.

title: 1191

section: Events › By place › Third Crusade

date: October 10

text: October 10 – Richard of Cornwall, brother of King Henry III of England, arrives at Acre for a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. His pilgrimage has the approval of Emperor Frederick II, who is married to his younger sister, Isabella of England, and gives him the task to make arrangements with the Military Orders. On his arrival, Richard travels to Ascalon, where he is met by ambassadors from As-Salih Ayyub. As a negotiator, he is successful in the release of prisoners captured in the Battle at Gaza (1239), and he also assists with the building of the citadel in Ascalon.

title: 1240

date: June 17

text: June 17 – Egyptian forces under Sultan As-Salih Ayyub capture Tiberias and his castle. Mount Tabor and Belvoir Castle are occupied soon afterward. Next, Ayyub moves his army to siege Ascalon – which is defended by a garrison of Knights Hospitaller. They summon the help from Acre and Cyprus.

title: 1247

text: The ancient city of Ascalon is captured from the Crusader States, and utterly destroyed by the Mamluk sultan Baibars, who goes so far as to fill in its important harbor, leaving the site desolate, and the city never to be rebuilt.

title: 1270

section: Events › Asia


slug: asceticism

label: Asceticism

description: lifestyle of frugality and abstinence of various forms, often for spiritual goals

section: Religion & Belief

text: Anthony the Great, a Christian saint from Egypt, regarded as "Father of All Monks", enters the wilderness to become ascetic.

title: 270

section: Events › By place › Africa

section: Deaths

text: King Hormizd I of Persia dies after a brief reign in which he has shown tolerance toward the ascetic, anti-materialist Manichean faith. He is succeeded by his brother Bahram I, who has been governing the province of Atropatene. Bahram proceeds to crush a rebellion by various vassal kings.

title: 273

section: Events › By place › Persia

section: Births

text: Evagrius Ponticus, Christian monk and ascetic (d. 399)

title: 345

text: Evagrius Ponticus, Christian monk and ascetic (b. 345)

title: 399

date: April 22

text: April 22 – Saint Theodore of Sykeon, Byzantine ascetic

title: 613

text: John Moschus, Byzantine monk and ascetical writer

title: 619

text: En no Ozunu, Japanese ascetic (approximate date)

title: 634

section: Climate & Environment

date: June 26

text: June 26 – En no Ozunu, Japanese ascetic, is banished to Izu Ōshima (a volcanic island in the Izu Islands), and accused of confusing the mind of the people with magic. He will be later regarded as the founder of a folk religion called Shugendō.

title: 699

text: Ibn Masarra, Muslim ascetic and scholar (d. 931)

title: 883

text: Ibn Masarra, Muslim ascetic and scholar (b. 883)

title: 931


slug: ashikaga-shogunate

label: Ashikaga shogunate

description: feudal military government of Japan (1336–1573)

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Hikitsuke, a judicial organ of the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates of Japan, is established.

title: 1249

section: Conflict & Security

text: Ashikaga Takauji is granted the title of shōgun by the emperor of Japan, starting the Ashikaga Shogunate.

title: 1338

section: Events › Date unknown

text: Japan re-enters into a tributary relationship with China.

title: 1401

date: December 27

text: December 27 – (27th day of 11th month of Bunmei 14) The Ashikaga shogunate and Koga kubo Ashikaga Shigeuji agree to the Tohiwaboku peace treaty, ending the Kyotoku War after almost 29 years. that had been ongoing since 1455.

title: 1483

section: Events › October–December

date: July 22

text: July 22 – (5th day of 7th month of Entoku 2) At Heian-kyō, in Japan, now Kyoto, Ashikaga Yoshitane becomes the 10th Muromachi shōgun of Japan, more than a year after the death of his cousin, Ashikaga Yoshihisa.

title: 1490

section: Events › July–September

date: August 2

text: August 2 – Kanō Masanobu, chief painter of the Ashikaga shogunate (b. 1434)

title: 1530

date: January 11

text: January 11 – (Tenbun 15, 20th day of the 12th month): Ashikaga Yoshifushi becomes 13th Shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate.

title: 1546

section: Events › January–March

text: June 17 – (19th day of 5th month, Eiroku 8); In Japan, Ashikaga Yoshiteru, the Ashikaga shogun, commits ritual suicide after Matsunaga Hisahide invades Kyoto.

title: 1565

section: Events › April–June

date: April 14

text: April 14 – Ishiyama Hongan-ji War: In Japan, the Third Battle of Ishiyama begins as Oda Nobunaga sends 10,000 soldiers against the Ashikaga shogunate to capture the Honganji Temple.

title: 1576


slug: ashoka

label: Ashoka

description: Mauryan emperor from 268 to 232 BCE

year_label: 304 BCE

text: Ashoka, Indian emperor and ruler of the Maurya Empire in present-day Eastern India 268–232 BC (d. 232 BC)

title: 304 BC

year_label: 302 BCE

title: 302 BC

year_label: 268 BCE

date: May 16

text: May 16 – Ashoka becomes emperor of the Maurya Empire.

title: 268 BC

section: Events › By place › India

year_label: 266 BCE

text: The Mauryan emperor Ashoka converts to Buddhism.

title: 266 BC

year_label: 261 BCE

text: Mauryan Emperor Ashoka wages a war against the independent kingdom of Kalinga, culminating in the Battle of the Dhauli Hills. In the aftermath, Kalinga is annexed into the Mauryan Empire, but the brutality of the war is believed to have led to Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, as described in his many Edicts of Ashoka.

title: 261 BC

year_label: 250 BCE

text: According to the Theravāda commentaries and chronicles, the Third Buddhist Council is convened by the Mauryan king Ashoka at Pataliputra (modern Patna), under the leadership of the monk Moggaliputta Tissa. Its objective is to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which are being attracted by the royal patronage.

title: 250 BC

year_label: 248 BCE

text: The Mauryan king Ashoka is dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism and begins establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.

title: 248 BC

year_label: 242 BCE

text: Maharani Devi, Mauryan empress and wife of Ashoka (approximate date)

title: 242 BC

year_label: 240 BCE

text: Asandhimitra, Mauryan empress and wife of Ashoka

title: 240 BC

year_label: 236 BCE

text: Buddhism is introduced to Sri Lanka by Mahinda, a monk acting on behalf of the late Ashoka.

title: 236 BC

section: Events › By place › Sri Lanka

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: December 1

text: December 1 – Archaeologist Alois Anton Führer, Nepalese General Khadga Samsher Rana and an expedition rediscover the great stone pillar of Ashoka at Lumbini, traditionally the spot of the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, after using Faxian's records.

title: 1896

section: Events › December


slug: ashurbanipal

label: Ashurbanipal

description: Assyrian ruler

year_label: 685 BCE

text: 685 BC—Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria (d. c. 627 BC)

title: 680s BC

year_label: 668 BCE

text: King Ashurbanipal puts down an Egyptian rebellion. He drives out Egypt's Ethiopian king Taharqa, and restores Necho I as governor of Sais in the Nile Delta.

title: 668 BC

section: Events › By Place › Middle East

year_label: 667 BCE

text: King Ashurbanipal of Assyria resumes his late father's attack on Egypt (see 671 BC), recapturing Memphis and beginning an offensive into Upper Egypt.

title: 667 BC

section: Events › By place › Middle East

year_label: 666 BCE

text: King Ashurbanipal undertook a campaign to Egypt.

title: 666 BC

year_label: 664 BCE

text: The Assyrians under Ashurbanipal capture and sack Thebes, Egypt.

title: 664 BC

section: Events

year_label: 663 BCE

text: The Assyrian Empire under Ashurbanipal drives the Kushites from Egypt and conquers the country.

title: 663 BC

year_label: 656 BCE

text: King Shamash-shum-ukin of Babylon forms a secret alliance with Arabs, Aramaeans, Elamites, Persians, and Egyptians against his half brother Ashurbanipal.

title: 656 BC

section: Events › By place › Assyria

year_label: 653 BCE

text: Elamite forces attack southern Babylon. A large Assyrian army sent by king Ashurbanipal defeat the Elamites, in the Battle of Ulai, and kill their king, Teumman. He is succeeded by his nephew Ummanigash.

title: 653 BC

year_label: 652 BCE

text: Elam withdraws from her alliance with king Shamash-shum-ukin of Babylon, who launches a premature attack on his half brother Ashurbanipal at year's end without waiting for reinforcements that have been promised by the Egyptian king Psamtik I.

title: 652 BC

section: Events › Middle East

year_label: 651 BCE

text: King Ashurbanipal defeats the Babylonian army of his half brother Shamash-shum-ukin and surrounds the fortified city of Babylon. Beginning a 3-year siege during which the Assyrians will defeat Shamash-shum-ukin's allies.

title: 651 BC

year_label: 648 BCE

text: Babylon falls to Assyrian forces after a 3-year siege (see 651 BC); starved out by his half brother Ashurbanipal, king Shamash-shum-ukin commits suicide in his burning palace, as the Assyrians slaughter his city's garrison and much of its population.

title: 648 BC

year_label: 647 BCE

text: Elam refuses to extradite an Aramaean prince, giving the king Ashurbanipal of Assyria an excuse to invade the country. He sacks the city of Susa.

title: 647 BC

year_label: 640 BCE

text: King Ashurbanipal of Assyria achieves a great victory over Elam. He captures its last king, Khumma-Khaldash III, and lays waste to the country.

title: 640 BC

year_label: 631 BCE

text: Ashurbanipal, Assyrian king (approximate date)

title: 631 BC