slug: grand-duchy-of-moscow

label: Grand Duchy of Moscow

text: Daniel of Moscow, youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, is mentioned during this year as an independent Prince of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. This Duchy will be a vassal state of the Golden Horde until 1471, later evolving into the Tsardom of Russia.

title: 1282

date: November 1

text: November 1 – Ivan I, Grand Duke of Moscow (d. 1341)

title: 1288

date: November 21

text: November 21 – Yuri III Danilovich, Grand Duke of Moscow, is assassinated by Dmitry of Tver, Grand Duke of Vladimir, nicknamed "the Terrible Eyes". Yuri's younger brother, Iván I Danilovich Kalitá, the Grand Duke of Vladimir, inherits Yuri's throne and relocates the spiritual capital of the Russian people to Moscow by directing the Metropolitan Peter to move his episcopal see from Kiev. The decision of both Ivan and Peter to relocate gradually makes Moscow the political center of Russia.

title: 1325

section: Events › October – December

date: October 12

text: October 12 – Dmitri Donskoi, Grand Duke of Muscovy and Vladimir (d. 1389)

title: 1350

text: Dmitry Donskoy, Prince of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, dethrones Dmitry of Suzdal to become Grand Prince of Vladimir.

title: 1363

section: Events › Date unknown

text: Dmitri Donskoi, ruler of Moscow and Vladimir, makes peace with Dmitri Konstantinovich, former ruler of Vladimir.

title: 1366

text: November 21 – King Algirdas of Lithuania and the Grand Duke Mikhail II of Tver defeat troops of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the Battle of the Trosna River, and reach the outside of the Moscow Kremlin Wall that surrounds the capital, but find it to be insurmountable and are unable to mount a siege.

title: 1368

text: The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tver sign a truce. Tver agrees to help Moscow fight the Blue Horde.

title: 1375

text: Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde overruns Muscovy, as punishment for Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy's resistance to Khan Mamai of the Blue Horde in the 1370s. Dmitry Donskoy pledges his loyalty to Tokhtamysh, and is allowed to remain as ruler of Moscow and Vladimir.

title: 1382

text: Rozhdestvensky monastery is built in Muscovy.

title: 1386

date: May 19

text: May 19 – Vasili I becomes Grand Prince of Moscow after the death of his father, Dmitry Donskoy.

title: 1389

text: Ushkuinik pirates from Novgorod sack the Muscovy towns of Zhukotin and Kazan.

title: 1391

date: January 21

text: January 21 – Vytautas the Great, claimant to the throne of Lithuania, forges an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Moscow as his daughter, Sophia marries Vasily, Grand Prince of Muscovy.

title: 1391

section: Events › January–March

text: Grand Duke Vytautas ends his alliance with Muscovy, and captures Vyazma and Smolensk.

title: 1403

text: Peace is declared between Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights, after they agree to exchange land and form an alliance against Muscovy.

title: 1404

date: December 15

text: December 15 – Jonas, a Russian bishop, is installed by the Council of Russian Bishops in Moscow, as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus. The event marks the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church because the election of Jonas is made without the approval of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople as this is without the consent of the Patriarch of Constantinople, it signifies the beginning of an effectively independent church structure in the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

title: 1448

text: Muscovy and the Novgorod Republic conclude the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy.

title: 1456

text: July 14 – At the Battle of Shelon, the forces of Muscovy defeat the Republic of Novgorod.

title: 1471

date: October 8

text: October 8 – The Great Stand on the Ugra River begins as troops of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, led by the Grand Duke Ivan III and General Ivan Molodoy battle against the invading Mongol armies of the Golden Horde, led by their ruling monarch, Akhmat Khan. The invasion began after Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. The Theotokos of Vladimir icon is credited with saving Moscow. The standoff between the troops lasts five weeks before Akhmat and the Mongol troops retreat.

title: 1480

date: September 8

text: September 8 – The army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow forces, led by Ivan III, invades the city of Tver, ruled by Mikhail III and capital of the Duchy of Tver. Within 10 days, Ivan is able to claim the Duchy.

title: 1485

title: 1494

title: 1501

date: November 24

text: November 24 – A large army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow overruns Livonia during the Second Muscovite–Lithuanian War.

title: 1501

date: April 11

text: April 11 – Dmitry Ivanovich Vnuk, who had been the teenage co-ruler of the Grand Duchy of Moscow since 1498 with his grandfather Ivan III, is arrested along with his mother, Elena of Moldavia on suspicion of conspiracy. Ivan designates his son (and Dmitry's uncle) Vasili Ivanovich as the new heir to the throne of Moscow.

title: 1502

date: November 6

text: November 6 (October 27 O.S.) – Vasili III succeeds Ivan III, as Grand Prince of Muscovy, comprising much of modern-day Russia.

title: 1505

title: 1514

text: Grand Prince Vasili III of Muscovy conquers Ryazan.

title: 1517

text: The Grand Duchy of Ryazan is annexed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

title: 1521

text: Pechenga Monastery is founded, in the far north of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

title: 1533

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: August 20

text: August 20 – English merchant Anthony Jenkinson arrives in Moscow on his second expedition to the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

title: 1561

date: March 15

text: March 15 – English merchant Anthony Jenkinson has an audience with Ivan the Terrible in Moscow, before departing the city on April 27 and continuing his second expedition through the Grand Duchy of Moscow to Qazvin, capital of the Safavid dynasty in Persia.

title: 1562

date: September 28

text: September 28 – English merchant Anthony Jenkinson returns to London from his second expedition to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, having gained a considerable extension of trading rights for the English Muscovy Company.

title: 1564


slug: grand-duchy-of-tuscany

label: Grand Duchy of Tuscany

description: former Italian state (1569–1801; 1815–1859)

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: August 27

text: August 27 – The Grand Duchy of Tuscany is formed.

title: 1569

section: Events › July–September

section: Religion & Belief

date: May 25

text: May 25 – The Holy League is established as an alliance of the Papal States, the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Urbino, the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily under the rule of the Spanish Empire and the Knights of Malta for mutual defense against attacks by the Ottoman Empire on ships in the Mediterranean Sea.

title: 1571

section: Events › April–June

date: January 10

text: January 10 – Construction of the Fortezza Nuova around the city of Livorno begins in Italy in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany on the orders of Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and continues for more than 14 years.

title: 1590

section: Health & Medicine

date: May 7

text: May 7 – The Malta plague epidemic begins when galleys from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany arrive on the island with 100 prisoners of war from Egypt, and 20 ill crewmembers; over the next 18 months, 3,000 people on Malta die of the bubonic plague.

title: 1592

section: Conflict & Security

date: September 6

text: September 6 – Battle of Mongiovino: The forces of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, led by Mattias de' Medici, defeated the Papal forces commanded by Taddeo Barberini.

title: 1643

date: April 4

text: April 4 – Great Britain, France and the Dutch Republic agree on the phasing out of the authority of the House of Medici over the semi-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany by declaring that Gian Gastone de' Medici will be the last of the Medici family to rule the Italian duchy and that Spain's House of Borbón will eventually control the Tuscan monarchy. Don Carlos of Spain, the two-year old son of King Philip V, is designated as the eventual heir, despite the objections of the 75-year old Grand Duke, Cosimo III de' Medici.

title: 1718

section: Events › April – June

date: January 5

text: January 5 – Spain and the Holy Roman Empire sign instruments of cession at Pontremoli in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in Italy, with the Empire receiving control of Tuscany and the Grand Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, in return for Don Carlos of Spain being recognized as King of Naples and King of Sicily.

title: 1737

date: February 1

text: February 1 – French Revolutionary Wars: The French First Republic declares war on Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and (on March 7) Spain. During the year, the War of the First Coalition is joined by Portugal, the Holy Roman Empire, Naples and Tuscany in opposition to France.

title: 1793

section: Events › January–June

date: March 22

text: March 22 – The Grand Duchy of Tuscany is annexed to the newly formed Kingdom of Italy.

title: 1860

section: Events › March


slug: grand-duke-of-lithuania

label: Grand Duke of Lithuania

date: May 26

text: May 26 – Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, sends his third, fourth and fifth letters to German cities to advocate that residents relocate to his the Duchy of Lithuania.

title: 1323

section: Births

text: probable – Władysław II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland (d. 1434)

title: 1351

text: Autumn 1362 or 1363 – Battle of Blue Waters: Grand Duke of Lithuania Algirdas defeats the Tatars, and takes over Kyiv.

title: 1362

date: December 6

text: December 6 – Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, leads a siege of Moscow itself, the capital of the Grand Principality, and his forces burn and pillage the city as Moscow's Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy retreats to the safety of the Kremlin. Donskoy's allies, his cousin Vladimir the Bold of Serpukhov and Prince Vladimir Dmitrievich Yaroslavich of Pronsk, come to Moscow's aid.

title: 1370

section: Events › October–December

date: May 31

text: May 31 – Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila signs the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės, with the Teutonic Knights. This sparks a civil war with his uncle Kęstutis.

title: 1380

date: October 12

text: October 12 – The Treaty of Salynas is signed by Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Konrad von Jungingen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, in an attempt to cede Samogitia to the Knights.

title: 1398

date: December 24

text: December 24 – Hussite Wars: In what is now the Czech Republic, General Sigismund Korybut, commander of the Hussite Army, withdraws his troops from Prague on the orders of Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland.

title: 1423

section: Deaths

date: October 27

text: October 27 – Vytautas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, dies shortly after the cancellation of plans to crown him as King of Lithuania. His cousin Švitrigaila is elected unanimously by the Lithuanian nobles as the new Grand Duke, violating an agreement with the Kingdom of Poland that the Polish nobles would be able to participate in the election.

title: 1430

date: January 3

text: January 3 – Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland, acknowledges the oath of loyalty made on October 25 by Žygimantas I Kęstutaitis, Grand Duke of Lithuania, continuing the progress of the eventual Uniting of Poland and Lithuania.

title: 1433

date: March 20

text: March 20: Sigismund Kęstutaitis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (b. 1365)

title: 1440

section: Culture & Society

date: June 25

text: June 25 – Kazimieras Jogailaitis, Grand Duke of Lithuania since 1440, is crowned King of Poland as Casimir IV Jagiellon, bringing an end to an interregnum that had existed since 1444 when Casimir's brother King Wladyslaw III had left Poland to fight in a Crusade against the Ottoman Turks.

title: 1447

date: July 30

text: July 30 – Alexander Jagiellon is crowned as Grand Duke of Lithuania.

title: 1492

section: Events › July—September

date: December 8

text: December 8 – Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt Jagiellon), younger brother of the late Alexander Jagiellon, becomes the King of Poland and (as Zygimantas II) the Grand Duke of Lithuania. He will reign for more than 40 years, dying in 1548 at the age of 81.

title: 1506

date: April 18

text: April 18 – The widowed Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, marries Milanese noblewoman Bona Sforza in Wawel Cathedral and she is crowned as Queen consort of Poland.

title: 1518

date: April 1

text: April 1 – Sigismund II Augustus succeeds his father, Sigismund I the Old, as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.

title: 1548

date: January 13

text: January 13 – Sigismund II Augustus, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, issues an edict against Protestants, at the urging of the Archbishop Mikołaj Dzierzgowski, Primate of Poland.

title: 1557

date: May 20

text: May 20 – Wladyslaw IV Vasa, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, dies after a reign of 15 years. The throne remains vacant for six months until Wladyslaw's younger half-brother, John II Casimir Vasa, is elected by Poland's Parliament.

title: 1648

date: September 29

text: September 29 – The formal coronation of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki as King of Poland (and Grand Duke of Lithuania) takes place in Kraków.

title: 1669

date: February 27

text: February 27 – The royal wedding in Poland, between King Michal Wisniowiecki (who is also the Grand Duke of Lithuania) and Eleonore of Austria (daughter of the late Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor), with ceremonies taking place at the Denhoff Palace in Kruszyna.

title: 1670


slug: grand-master-order

label: Grand Master (order)

text: Honorius II recognizes and confirms the Order of the Knights Templar. The French abbot Bernard of Clairvaux codifies the rule of the Order. Hugues de Payens, French Grand Master of the Order, visits both England and Scotland, where he raises men and money for the Order.

title: 1128

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Fernando Afonso, Portuguese Grand Master (d. 1207)

title: 1135

text: Garnier de Nablus, Syrian Grand Master (d. 1192)

title: 1147

text: A large Portuguese offensive begins in the Alentejo region, against the Almoravids. The city of Tomar is founded by Gualdim Pais, Grand Master of the Knights Templar.

title: 1160

section: Events › By place › Europe

date: March 1

text: March 1 – Fernando Afonso, Portuguese Grand Master

title: 1207

date: May 9

text: May 9 – Richard de Bures, French knight and Grand Master

title: 1247

date: January 1

text: January 1 – Pope Paul II issues a papal bull establishing the military order of the Knights of Saint George at the request of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and invests Johann Siebenhirter as the order's first Grand Master.

title: 1469

date: August 21

text: August 21 – Jean Parisot de Valette, 49th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1495)

title: 1568


slug: grand-vizier-of-the-ottoman-empire

label: Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire

date: March 8

text: March 8 – Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire since 1523, is executed after falling into disfavor with Hürrem Sultan, the wife of Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. After Hürrem persuades her husband that Pargali Ibrahim has become a threat as his money and power have increased, Suleiman hosts an elaborate dinner with Pargali as his guest. After the dinner ends, Pargali prepares to go to bed but is seized and strangled upon reaching his bedroom.

title: 1536

section: Events › January–March

date: October 11

text: October 11 – Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire for more than 14 years, is assassinated in Constantinople.

title: 1579

date: December 1

text: December 1 – Hadim Mesih Pasha is appointed the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Murad III.

title: 1585

date: August 1

text: August 1 – Serdar Ferhad Pasha is appointed the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Murad III, replacing Koca Sinan Pasha following a revolt of the Janissaries.

title: 1591

date: February 6

text: February 6 – Despite a string of military victories over the Serbian rebels, Koca Sinan Pasha is dismissed as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Mehmed III, and banished to Malkara. He is replaced by Serdar Ferhad Pasha, whom he replaces on July 7.

title: 1595

date: December 5

text: December 5 – Damat Ibrahim Pasha is appointed the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Mehmed III for the second time in less than a year, replacing Cigalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha, who succeeded him on October 27.

title: 1596

date: July 22

text: July 22 – General Yemişçi Hasan Pasha is selected as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Mehmed III, 12 days after the death of Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha. He served for only 15 months before being executed on the Sultan's orders on October 4, 1603.

title: 1601

section: Crime & Justice

date: October 18

text: October 18 – Yemişçi Hasan Pasha, the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, is executed on orders of Sultan Mehmed III, after failing to respond more quickly to the Safavid Empire's actions to take Tabriz. The Sultan appoints Yavuz Ali Pasha, the Ottoman Governor of Egypt to replace Yemişçi Hasan.

title: 1603

date: June 21

text: June 21 – Derviş Mehmed Pasha is appointed the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Ahmed I after Sokolluzade Lala Mehmed Pasha dies of a stroke. Derviş Mehmed serves less than six months before Ahmed suddenly has him executed.

title: 1606

date: April 6

text: April 6 – Damat Halil Pasha is fired from his position as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Murad IV after failing again to suppress the rebellion started by Abaza Mehmed Pasha or to win the war of the Ottomans against Persia. Halil is replaced by Gazi Hüsrev Pasha.

title: 1628

date: August 27

text: August 27 – Tayyar Mehmed Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire after Bayram Pasha dies while fighting in Baghdad.

title: 1638

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: October 31

text: October 31 – Köprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha is appointed as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire at the request of his late father, the Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha, serving under the Sultan Mehmed IV for 15 years and continuing the Köprülü family dynasty whose members will serve as Viziers until 1711.

title: 1661

date: December 25

text: December 25 – Kara Mustafa Pasha, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire since 1676, is executed on orders of Sultan Mehmed IV after being blamed for the Ottoman loss of the Battle of Vienna on September 12. The execution is carried out in Belgrade as Kara Mustafa is strangled with a silk cord. The Sultan appoints Bayburtlu Kara Ibrahim Pasha as the new Grand Vizier.

title: 1683

date: February 23

text: February 23 – Abaza Siyavuş Pasha, the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, is assassinated by the Janissaries, the Turkish troops who had placed him in power in September, after the new Sultan fails to make payment of an expected bonus.

title: 1688

date: March 27

text: March 27 – Bozoklu Mustafa Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, after Sultan Ahmed II appoints him as the successor of Çalık Ali Pasha.

title: 1693

date: April 22

text: April 22 – Sürmeli Ali Pasha is fired from his position as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, after coming into a disagreement with the new Sultan, Mustafa II. Sürmeli is initially sent into exile, but executed on the Sultan's orders on May 29.

title: 1695

date: September 17

text: September 17 – Amcazade Köprülü Hüseyin Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the disastrous Ottoman defeat at Zenta, replacing Grand Vizier Elmas Mehmed Pasha, who was killed in the battle by his own troops.

title: 1697

date: June 16

text: June 16 – Köprülüzade Numan Pasha becomes the grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1710

date: August 24

text: August 24 – Seyyid Abdullah Pasha, the Turkish Governor of Cyprus, becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire and serves until 1750.

title: 1747

date: July 1

text: July 1 – In Istanbul, Divitdar Mehmed Emin Pasha is dismissed from his position as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire by the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud I. The Sultan appoints Çorlulu Ali Pasha as the new Grand Vizier.

title: 1752

date: October 25

text: October 25 – Yirmisekizzade Mehmed Said Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, the fifth person to serve as the Empire's Vizier in 1755.

title: 1755

text: April 1 – Yirmisekizzade Mehmed Said Pasha resigns as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire. He is replaced by Köse Bahir Mustafa Pasha, who has been Grand Vizier from 1752 to 1755.

title: 1756

date: January 12

text: January 12 – Koca Ragıp Pasha becomes the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, and administers the office for seven years until his death in 1763.

title: 1757


slug: gratian

label: Gratian

description: Roman emperor from 367 to 383

text: Gratian, Roman emperor (d. 383)

title: 359

section: Religion & Belief

date: August 4

text: August 4 – Gratian receives the title of Augustus under his father, Valentinian I.

title: 367

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: Spring – Emperor Valentinian I and his 8-year-old son, Gratian, cross the Rhine with an army into Alamannic territory. He defeats the Alemanni and burns food stores along the border. A temporary peace is signed with Macrian, king of the Bucinobantes, and Valentinian returns to his capital Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier).

title: 368

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Gratian, age 16, takes over the government at Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), but ministers wishing to retain the loyalty of the Illyrian army fear a usurper. They proclaim Valentinian's 4-year-old son Valentinian II co-emperor with his mother, Justina, as regent. Gratian reserves for himself the administration of the Gallic provinces, and hands over Italy, Illyrium, Hispania and Africa to his stepmother, who makes Mediolanum (Milan) her residence.

title: 375

text: Emperor Valens requests his nephew Gratian to send Roman troops against the Goths. He responds by sending the ageing General Frigeridus with elite reinforcements that Ammianus calls ‘Pannonian and Transalpine auxiliaries (Pannonicis et Transalpinis auxiliis).’ Gratian also sends Richomeres, his Frankish commander of household troops (comes domesticorum), at the head of a number of troops drawn from the Gallic field army.

title: 377

date: May

text: May – Battle of Argentovaria: Emperor Gratian is forced to recall the army he has sent East. The Lentienses are defeated by Mallobaudes near Colmar (France). Gratian gains the title Alemannicus Maximus.

title: 378

date: January 19

text: January 19 – Emperor Gratian elevates Flavius Theodosius at Sirmium, giving him the title Augustus with power over all the eastern provinces. Theodosius comes to terms with the Visigoths and settles them in the Balkans as military allies (foederati).

title: 379

date: February 27

text: February 27 – Edict of Thessalonica: Theodosius I, with co-emperors Gratian and Valentinian II, declare their wish that all Roman citizens convert to trinitarian Christianity, in accordance with the patriarchs of Rome and Alexandria, implicitly rejecting the Arianism of the patriarch of Constantinople as heretical.

title: 380

text: Emperor Gratian moves the capital to Mediolanum (modern-day Milan). Because of his Christian beliefs, he eliminates Pontifex Maximus as Imperial title. Gratian also refuses the robe of office, insulting the pagan aristocrats of Rome.

title: 381

text: The Gallic city of Cularo is renamed Gratianopolis (later Grenoble), in honor of Gratian having created a bishopric.

title: 381

text: Emperor Gratian refuses the divine attributes of the Imperial cult and removes the Altar of Victory from the Senate.

title: 382

date: August 25

text: August 25 – Emperor Gratian, age 24, is assassinated at Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon), leaving a young widow Laeta. Pannonia and Africa maintain their allegiance to co-emperor Valentinian II, now 12, whose mother, Justina, rules in his name.

title: AD 383

text: August 25 – Gratian, Roman Emperor (assassinated) (b. 359)

title: AD 383

date: December 17

text: December 17 – Pope Siricius succeeds Damasus I as the 38th pope. He takes the title Pontifex Maximus, after it is relinquished by the late emperor Gratian.

title: 384


slug: great-britain

label: Great Britain

description: island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe

year_label: 325 BCE

text: (around this year) – Pytheas made a voyage of naval exploration to northwestern Europe, reaching Britain and the Baltic Sea, and mentioning Thule as the furthest island to the north in the Atlantic.

title: 325 BC

year_label: 73 BCE

text: Heli, king of Britain (approximate date)

title: 73 BC

year_label: 5 CE

text: AD 5 – Rome acknowledges Cunobelinus, king of the Catuvellauni, as king of Britain.

title: 0s

section: Events › Roman Empire

year_label: 8 CE

section: Conflict & Security

text: AD 8 – Tincomarus, deposed king of the Atrebates, flees Britain for Rome; Eppillus becomes king.

title: 0s

section: Events › Europe

year_label: 40 CE

text: Caligula starts on a campaign to conquer Britain, which fails miserably. He declares himself victorious regardless.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 40

year_label: 63 CE

text: According to legend, Joseph of Arimathea goes to Glastonbury on the first Christian mission to Britain.

title: AD 63

year_label: 71 CE

text: Battle of Stanwick: Quintus Petillius Cerialis, governor of Britain, puts down a revolt by the Brigantes.

title: AD 71

text: A revolt breaks out in Britain; the garrison at Eboracum (York) is massacred.

title: AD 115

text: Hadrian also visits Britain in this year at the request of governor of Britain Quintus Pompeius Falco.

title: AD 119

text: King Vortigern invites a number of Germanic warriors to aid him in consolidating his position in Britain, according to the Historia Brittonum. He hires Saxons who are probably settled in Kent as mercenaries to fight against the Picts and the Scots beyond Hadrian's Wall.

title: 428

text: Pope Celestine I dispatches two bishops from Gaul, Germanus of Auxerre and Lupus of Troyes to Britain combat the Pelagian heresy.

title: 429

text: Pelagius, British monk (approximate date)

title: 435

text: Battle of Wallop: Ambrosius Aurelianus, leader of the Romano-British, defeats the Anglo Saxons under King Vortigern. He is given all the kingdoms of the western side of Britain (according to Historia Brittonum).

title: 437

section: Climate & Environment

text: Period of civil war and famine in Britain, caused by rival kingdoms and Pictish invasions; the situation aggravates tensions between Pelagian and Roman factions. Pro-Roman citizens migrate towards Gaul.

title: 443

text: Ambrosius Aurelianus, war leader of the Romano-British, is proclaimed king of the Britons (according to Historia Regum Britanniae). He rules probably in the south of Britain, and continues the war against the Anglo-Saxons.

title: 479

section: Events › By place › Britannia

text: Aelle of Sussex besieges and conquers the fortified town Anderitum in southern Britain. He massacres the population, apparently sub-Roman Brythons (according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

title: 491

text: King Custennin ap Cado is deposed, and returns to Dumnonia in the south-west of Great Britain.

title: 540

text: Columbanus, Irish missionary, gathers 12 companions for his journey to Britain, probably to the Scottish coast. After a short time, he crosses the English Channel and lands in Brittany (France).

title: 585

date: June

text: June – Pope Gregory I the Great sends a group of Benedictine monks under Augustine of Canterbury on a mission to Britain, to Christianize King Æthelberht, and convert the Kingdom of Kent from native Anglo-Saxon paganism. He carries letters of commendation to bishops, and is accompanied by Frankish interpreters.

title: 595

date: June 9

text: June 9 – Columba, Irish missionary, dies in Iona (Inner Hebrides) and is buried by his monks in the abbey he has created. He works successfully towards the conversion of northern Britain.

title: 597

date: March 12

text: March 12 – Pope Gregory I (the Great) dies at Rome, after a 14-year tenure. He has laid the foundations which claim papal absolutism, pioneered the conversion of Britain to Roman Catholicism and enunciated what will come to be known as the "seven deadly sins". Gregory is succeeded by Sabinian as the 65th pope of the Catholic Church.

title: 604

text: King Godepert makes war against his brother Perctarit. He seeks the aid of Grimoald I, duke of Benevento, who has him assassinated; his son Raginpert escapes. Grimoald usurps the throne and becomes ruler of the Lombard Kingdom. Perctarit is exiled, and seeks refuge in Gaul and Britain.

title: 662

section: Health & Medicine

text: A brief outbreak of plague hits Britain (approximate date).

title: 663

section: Events › By place › Britain

section: Science & Discovery

date: May 1

text: 1 May – A solar eclipse affects areas along a line from Central America, through eastern North America, the North Atlantic, Ireland, Great Britain and Germany.

title: 664

section: Events › By place › North America & Europe

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: Wilfrid returns to Great Britain, but is shipwrecked in Sussex. When he finally reaches Northumbria, he finds he has been deposed and is forced to retire to Ripon.

title: AD 666

section: Events › By place › Religion

date: September 6

text: September 6 – King Wihtred of Kent, who maintains Kentish independence against the growing expansion of Mercia, issues one of the earliest known law codes of Britain.

title: 695

text: King Æthelbald of Mercia is described in the Ismere Diploma as ruler (bretwalda) of the Mercians, and all the provinces in southern England. He is also named "Rex Britanniae" (king of Britain).

title: 736

text: Bretons begin to flee the land, seeking the relative security of Britain. Vikings loot the Abbey of Saint-Melaine at Rennes (approximate date).

title: 875

text: In Great Britain, a unified Kingdom of England had developed out of the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

title: AD 1000

section: Events › Christendom

date: September 11

text: September 11 – 1275 British earthquake: An earthquake strikes the south of Great Britain. The epicentre is unknown, although it may have been in the Portsmouth-Chichester area on the south coast of England or in Glamorgan, Wales.

title: 1275

section: Events › By place › British Isles

date: October 23

text: October 23 – Hannah Twynnoy, a 24-year-old barmaid in Malmesbury, Wiltshire, becomes the first person to be killed in Great Britain by a tiger. While working at the White Lion Inn, where a group of wild animals is on exhibit, she is mauled after bothering the tiger.

title: 1703

date: December 9

text: December 9 – As part of the agreements made at Utrecht to end the War of the Spanish Succession, Great Britain and Spain sign a treaty of commerce and navigation.

title: 1713

section: Economy & Finance

date: December 8

text: December 8 – For the first time since the union of England and Scotland into Great Britain, the Royal Bank of Scotland, which still retains the right to print currency, issues its first pound note, printing paper currency for twenty shillings. The Scottish pound note continues to be printed until 2001 and the smallest denomination now is a five pound note.

title: 1727

date: June 14

text: June 14 – The Congress of Soissons opens at the French town of Soissons to negotiate a treaty between Great Britain and Spain. The treaty, which is concluded on November 9, 1729, recognizes the Spanish royal family's rule of parts of Italy, and Britain's possession of Gibraltar and Menorca.

title: 1728

section: Events › April–June

date: November 9

text: November 9 – The Treaty of Seville is signed between Great Britain, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic.

title: 1729

date: March 16

text: March 16 – The Treaty of Vienna is signed between the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Spain.

title: 1731

date: June 21

text: June 21 – In Britain, the Theatrical Licensing Act requires plays to be submitted to the Lord Chamberlain for censorship.

title: 1737

date: April 9

text: April 9 – The Scottish Jacobite Lord Lovat is beheaded at Tower Hill, London, for high treason. He was the last person in Britain to be beheaded, although beheading would not be formally abolished until more than 200 years later.

title: 1747

date: August 15

text: August 15 – Great Britain, Russia and the Dutch Republic sign the Convention of Saint Petersburg (1747).

title: 1747

text: July 2 – War of the Austrian Succession – Battle of Lauffeld: France defeats the combined armies of Hanover, Great Britain and the Netherlands.

title: 1747

text: October 5 – Treaty of Madrid: Spain and Great Britain sign a treaty temporarily eliminating their hostility over their colonies in North and South America. In addition to both sides dropping their claims for damages against each other, Spain agrees to pay the South Sea Company £100,000 for damage claims.

title: 1750

text: October 9 – James Oatley, British-born colonial Australian watch and clock maker (b. 1769)

title: 1839

text: June 23 –The first message by electric telegraph using the Great Britain to India submarine cable is sent from London.

title: 1870

text: June 8 – The final splice on the first telegraph submarine cable between Great Britain and India is made.

title: 1870

text: March 4 – The Forth Bridge, the longest bridge in Great Britain, on the Firth of Forth in Scotland, is opened to rail traffic.

title: 1890


slug: great-heathen-army

label: Great Heathen Army

description: coalition of Norse warriors that invaded the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

text: The Great Heathen Army (probably no more than 1,000 men) of Vikings, led by Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan Ragnarsson, invades East Anglia. King Edmund of East Anglia buys peace with a supply of horses.

title: 865

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The Great Heathen Army of the Vikings rides north to Northumbria. The Northumbrians are preoccupied with a civil war, and the Danes enter York unopposed.

title: 866

text: Vikings or "Danes" (the two terms were often used interchangeably at the time), comprising the Great Heathen Army, advance northward from bases in the Kingdom of East Anglia, into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria.

title: 867

text: King Burgred of Mercia appeals to Æthelred I for help in resisting the Great Heathen Army. The Danes occupy Nottingham, and stay through the winter without any serious opposition.

title: 868

text: Autumn –The Great Heathen Army, led by Ivar the Boneless and Ubba, invades the Kingdom of East Anglia and plunders Peterborough. The Vikings take up winter quarters at Thetford.

title: 869

text: Autumn – The Great Heathen Army, led by Ivar the Boneless and Ubba, invades East Anglia and plunders Peterborough. King Edmund the Martyr is captured, tortured, beaten and used for archery practice (or 869).

title: 870

text: The English retreat onto the Berkshire Downs. The Great Heathen Army, led by the Danish Viking kings Halfdan and Bagsecg, march out after the Saxons. Six pitched battles are fought between the Danes and Wessex. Of two of them the place and date are not recorded, the others are:

title: 871

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Autumn – The Great Heathen Army returns to Northumbria, to put down a rebellion at York. King Ecgberht I and his archbishop, Wulfhere, are expelled by the Northumbrians and flee to Mercia.

title: 872

text: The Danish Great Heathen Army, led by the Viking leaders Halfdan and Guthrum, attack Mercia and capture the royal centre at Repton (Derbyshire). The Vikings establish an encampment with a U-shape ditch, on the south bank of the River Trent and spend the winter there.

title: 873

text: Autumn – The Great Heathen Army splits into two bands; Halfdan returns with his forces to Northumbria, along with his brother Ubba, where he establishes a new base on the River Tyne.

title: 874

text: June – The Great Heathen Army, led by Guthrum, moves on Cambridge. He later returns to Wessex, to establish a winter quarter. King Alfred the Great fights the Danes in a naval engagement.

title: 875

text: The Great Heathen Army, led by Guthrum, captures the fortress of Wareham (Dorset), and is met by a Viking army (3,500 men) from the sea, which lands at Poole Harbour. King Alfred the Great traps the Vikings, and demands hostages in return for a peace agreement. The Danes divide their forces; half flees to Exeter, where they besiege the town while the other half escape in their ships, but are lost in a storm near Swanage.

title: 876

text: Autumn – King Alfred the Great raises a large force, and marches on the Viking camp at the city of Exeter. His army besieges the Great Summer Army, led by Guthrum, and forces the Vikings to surrender. They flee north to Gloucester, and settle in the Five Boroughs (modern East Midlands).

title: 877

date: February 2

text: February 2 – Battle of Lüneburg Heath: King Louis III is defeated by the Norse Great Heathen Army at Lüneburg Heath. The Saxons are routed in a snowstorm; many drown in the river or are captured during the retreat.

title: 880


slug: great-lakes

label: Great Lakes

description: group of lakes in North America

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: January 15

text: January 15 – After overwintering with the Huron Indians, Samuel de Champlain and Recollect Father Joseph Le Caron visit the Petun and Ottawa Indians of the Great Lakes. This is Champlain's last trip in North America before returning to France. Having secured Canada, he helps create French America, New France, or L'Acadie.

title: 1616

section: Events › January–February

date: August 7

text: August 7 – The brigantine Le Griffon, commissioned by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes of North America.

title: 1679

section: Events › July–September

date: April 29

text: April 29 – The Rush–Bagot Treaty is signed between the United States and the British Empire, limiting the number of warships on the Great Lakes between the U.S. and Canada in the aftermath of settling the War of 1812.

title: 1817

section: Technology & Infrastructure

date: July 4

text: July 4 – At Rome, New York, construction on the Erie Canal begins in the U.S. to link the Hudson River to Lake Erie, with the long-range goal of making the first navigable waterway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, and reducing the amount of time and costs for transporting goods westward past the Appalachian mountains.

title: 1817

date: September 29

text: September 29 – A consortium of flour mill operators in Minneapolis forms the Minneapolis, Sault Ste. Marie and Atlantic Railway, as a means to get their product to the Great Lakes ports, avoiding the high tariffs of Chicago.

title: 1883

section: Events › September

date: July 7

text: July 7 – The Great Lakes Towing Company is incorporated by John D. Rockefeller and William G. Mather to acquire more than 150 tugboats to control shipping in four of the North American Great Lakes and quickly builds a monopoly on Great Lakes traffic.

title: 1899

section: Events › July

date: November 28

text: November 28 – The Mataafa Storm buffets the Great Lakes region. Named after the ', a boat sunk outside of the Duluth Ship Canal, the storm ultimately destroys 29 vessels, leading to 29 deaths and shipping losses of US$3.567 million (1905 dollars).

title: 1905

section: Events › November

date: April 25

text: April 25 – The Saint Lawrence Seaway linking the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean officially opens to shipping.

title: 1959

section: Events › April

date: January 25

text: January 25–27 – The Great Blizzard of 1978 strikes the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes, killing 70.

title: 1978

section: Events › January

text: Zebra mussels, a species originally native to the lakes of southern Russia and Ukraine, are found in the Great Lakes of North America.

title: 1988

section: Events › Date unknown


slug: great-moravia

label: Great Moravia

description: 9th-century Slavic state

text: Mojmir I, Moravian duke, expels Prince Pribina from his homeland (western part of modern Slovakia). He unifies Great Moravia and becomes the first known ruler of the Moravian Slavs, who founds the House of Mojmir (approximate date).

title: 833

section: Conflict & Security

text: Frankish forces led by Louis the German invade Moravia. They encounter little resistance, and depose King Mojmir I from the throne. His relative, Rastislav, is set up as the new client ruler.

title: 846

section: Deaths

text: Mojmir I, king of Moravia (approximate date)

title: 846

text: The Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius arrive with a few disciples in Moravia, by request of Prince Rastislav.

title: 863

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: King Louis the German invades Moravia, crossing the Danube River to besiege the civitas Dowina (identified, although not unanimously, with Devín Castle in Slovakia).

title: 864

text: Rastislav, ruler (knyaz) of Great Moravia, dies in prison after he is condemned to death for treason, by Louis the German. He is succeeded by his nephew Svatopluk I, who becomes a vassal of the East Frankish Kingdom.

title: 870

text: Svatopluk I, ruler (knyaz) of Great Moravia, concludes a peace treaty at Forchheim (Northern Bavaria). He is able to expand his territories outside the Frankish sphere, and subjugates the Vistulans.

title: 874

section: Religion & Belief

text: Pope John VIII issues the bull Industriae Tuae, creating an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia, with archbishop Methodius as its head. Old Church Slavonic is recognized as the fourth liturgical language, besides Latin, Greek and Hebrew.

title: 880

text: Svatopluk I, ruler (knyaz) of Great Moravia, conquers Lower Pannonia (today's Southwestern Hungary and Northern Croatia), during the succession strife in the East Frankish Kingdom (approximate date).

title: 883

text: The Magyars, an Ugric tribe from the steppe of Central Asia, move west under the leadership of Árpád. They are pushed by their rivals, the Pechenegs, into the Balkan Peninsula, and become entangled in a war between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire. The Magyars head north and settle in Great Moravia.

title: 889

text: The sovereignty of Svatopluk I, ruler (knyaz) of Moravia, is confirmed in Bohemia. Lusatia becomes a part of his kingdom (approximate date).

title: 890

text: Summer – Poppo II, duke of Thuringia (Central Germany), is deposed by King Arnulf of Carinthia. East Frankish forces and their Magyar (Hungarian) allies invade Great Moravia.

title: 892

title: 894

text: Svatopluk I, ruler (knyaz) of Great Moravia, dies after a 34-year reign, in which he has united the Slavic tribes in his kingdom. He is succeeded by his eldest son Mojmir II. The Principality of Nitra (modern-day Slovakia) is given as an appanage to his brother Svatopluk II.

title: 894

text: Spytihněv I, duke of Bohemia, together with the Slavník prince Witizla, breaks away from Great Moravia, and swears allegiance to Arnulf of Carinthia in Regensburg.

title: 895

section: Crime & Justice

text: Summer – Duke Mojmir II halts the advance of the plundering Hungarians under Grand Prince Árpád in Great Moravia (approximate date).

title: 906


slug: great-northern-war

label: Great Northern War

description: conflict between anti-Swedish coalition Led by Russia and Swedish empires in 1700–1721

date: February 22

text: February 22 (Gregorian), February 12 (Julian) – The Great Northern War begins with a joint invasion of Swedish territory in Germany and Latvia, by Denmark and Poland/Saxony. Sweden has control of the Baltic Sea and holds territory that includes Finland, Estonia, Latvia and parts of northern Germany. To challenge its power, an alliance is formed between Tsar Peter I of Russia, King Frederick IV of Denmark and Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony. Sweden's ruler is the militaristic Charles XII, known as the "Swedish Meteor".

title: 1700

section: Events › January–March

date: July 19

text: July 19 – Crossing of the Düna: Following his victories over Denmark-Norway and Russia in 1700, Charles XII of Sweden escalates the conflict in the Great Northern War by an invasion of Poland. The Swedish defeat the army of Saxony (then in personal union with Poland) at the River Dvina.

title: 1701

date: August 11

text: August 11 – Great Northern War: Częstochowa, Poland, is captured by the Swedish army.

title: 1702

text: July 19 (July 8 O.S.; July 9 Swedish calendar) – Great Northern War: Battle of Klissow – Charles XII of Sweden decisively defeats the Polish–Lithuanian-Saxon army.

title: 1702

date: July 30

text: July 30 (July 19 O.S.; July 20 Swedish calendar) – Great Northern War: Battle of Hummelshof – Russia defeats Sweden.

title: 1702

date: March 24

text: March 24 – Great Northern War: Battle of Darsūniškis – The Swedish army of about 240 men under the command of Alexander Hummerhielm is defeated by the Polish–Saxon army of 6,000 men under Michał Serwacy Wiśniowiecki.

title: 1702

date: May 27

text: May 27 (May 16 OS) – The city of Saint Petersburg, Russia is founded, following Peter the Great's reconquest of Ingria from Sweden during the Great Northern War.

title: 1703

section: Events › April–June

text: Great Northern War: Russian troops under Tsar Peter the Great capture Tartu and Narva.

title: 1704

date: July 12

text: July 12 – Great Northern War – King Charles XII of Sweden forces the election of his ally Stanisław Leszczyński as King of Poland, in place of Augustus II the Strong.

title: 1704

date: October 28

text: October 28 – Great Northern War: The Battle of Poniec takes place as King Charles XII leads Swedish troops in pursuit of the Saxon Army commanded by General Johann von der Schulenburg. The Swedes are forced to retreat despite surrounding the Saxons, and Schulenburg's troops escape.

title: 1704

section: Events › October–December

date: July 26

text: July 26 – Great Northern War: At the Battle of Gemauerthof, fought in modern-day Latvia, Swedish forces under the command of General Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt overwhelm a much larger force of Russian troops commanded by Count Boris Sheremetev, killing 2,000 Russians and wounding as many as 3,000.

title: 1705

date: July 31

text: July 31 – The Battle of Warsaw is fought near Warsaw, Poland, in the Great Northern War.

title: 1705

text: November 28 – The Treaty of Warsaw is concluded between the Swedish Empire and the faction of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth loyal to Stanisław Leszczyński during the Great Northern War.

title: 1705

date: February 13

text: February 13 – Great Northern War – Battle of Fraustadt: Outnumbered more than 4 to 1 in infantry troops, and more than 2 to 1 overall, Swedish troops under the command of General Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld defeat a larger force of 20,000 Russian and Saxon infantry and cavalry.

title: 1706

date: January 26

text: January 26 – Great Northern War – Battle of Grodno: A coalition of 34,000 Swedish and Polish troops besieges the then-Lithuanian city in the winter time, and clashes with 41,000 Russian and Saxon troops. After almost three months of fighting that lasts to April 10, Sweden takes control of the city, which is now located in Belarus.

title: 1706

date: October 13

text: October 13 – Augustus II, known as August der Starke (Augustus the Strong), Elector of Saxony, having ruled as King of Poland since 1706, signs the Treaty of Altranstädt (1706), renouncing all claims to the throne to settle his fight with Sweden during the Great Northern War.

title: 1706

date: February 4

text: February 4 – Great Northern War: Eighteen months after losing the Battle of Warsaw, while leading a cavalry charge for Saxony against the army of Sweden, General Otto von Paykull of Swedish Livonia is beheaded outside of Stockholm, following his conviction for treason.

title: 1707

date: September 28

text: September 28 (O.S.); September 29 (Swedish calendar); October 9 (N.S.) – Great Northern War: Battle of Lesnaya – Peter the Great of Russia defeats the forces of the Swedish Empire.

title: 1708

section: Events › July–December

date: July 8

text: July 8 (June 27 Old Style; June 28 in the Swedish calendar) – Great Northern War: Battle of Poltava in the Cossack Hetmanate (Ukraine) – Peter the Great leads forces of the Tsardom of Russia to a decisive victory over Swedish forces under Charles XII, ending the Swedish invasion of Russia and effectively ending Sweden's role as a major power in Europe.

title: 1709

date: October 10

text: October 10 – Great Northern War – Capitulation of Estonia: the Swedish garrison in Reval (Tallinn) surrenders, ending Swedish rule in Estonia.

title: 1710

date: October 4

text: October 4 – Great Northern War – the Battle of Køge Bay between Denmark and Norway has an indecisive outcome.

title: 1710

date: September 26

text: September 26 – Great Northern War – Capitulation of Livonia: the Swedish garrison in Riga surrenders, ending Swedish rule in modern Latvia.

title: 1710

date: December 5

text: December 5 – Great Northern War: the Battle of Wismar results in a Danish victory over Swedish forces.

title: 1711

date: April 11

text: April 11 – Great Northern War: the Battle of Fladstrand takes place at sea near Fladstrand, Jylland, between Swedish and Danish forces.

title: 1712

section: Events › April –June

date: December 20

text: December 20 – Great Northern War: the Battle of Gadebusch is Sweden's final great victory in the war, preventing the loss of the city of Stralsund to Danish and Saxon forces.

title: 1712

date: May 2

text: May 2 – In the Great Northern War, a fleet of the Russian Navy, transporting 12,000 soldiers, sails from Kronstadt to attack the Swedish Army at Helsinki.

title: 1713

date: May 21

text: May 21 – Great Northern War: The Russian fleet lands a force of 10,000 men at Pernå on the southern coast of Finland.

title: 1713

date: October 6

text: October 6 – The Treaty of Schwedt is signed between Russia and Brandenburg-Prussia, with the latter accepting the annexation of Baltic territories and paying Russia expenses in return for the southern part of Pomerania, recently taken from Sweden in the Great Northern War.

title: 1713

date: April 24

text: April 24 – The Battle of Fehmarn takes place in the Baltic Sea as part of the Great Northern War. Ten warships of Denmark, under the command of Christian Gabel, overwhelm a force of Swedish Navy ships led by Carl Wachtmeister. By the time the battle ends the next day, five Swedish ships and 1,626 crewmen have been captured, and another 353 killed. The Danish navy suffers 65 deaths.

title: 1715

date: December 11

text: December 11 (November 30 Old Style) – King Charles XII of Sweden is killed at the Siege of Fredriksten in the Great Northern War, the last European monarch to die on a battlefield. His death ends the first era of absolute monarchy in Sweden. Five days later, when the news reaches Stockholm, his sister Princess Ulrika Eleonora proclaims herself Queen regnant of Sweden.

title: 1718

section: Events › October –December

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: July 11

text: July 11 – Russia's Baltic Sea fleet is first spotted from the Swedish coast, starting the Russian Pillage of 1719–21 as part of the Great Northern War.

title: 1719

text: October 28 – Sweden and Denmark-Norway sign an armistice, halting combat in the Great Northern War between them, with final terms agreed to in the Treaty of Frederiksborg on July 3, 1720.

title: 1719

date: July 14

text: July 14 (July 3 O.S.) – The Treaty of Frederiksborg is signed between Denmark–Norway and Sweden, restoring the occupied portion of Swedish Pomerania to Sweden and ending the Great Northern War.

title: 1720

text: September 10 (August 23 Old Style) – The Treaty of Nystad is signed, ending the Great Northern War.

title: 1721


slug: greater-khorasan

label: Greater Khorasan

text: Shapur I puts down the revolt in Khorasan (Iran and Turkmenistan), and rejoins his army.

title: 252

section: Events › By place › Persia

date: March 2

text: March 2 – Mani, a sage of Persia, dies at Gundeshapur after 30 years of preaching his "heresy" at the court of the late Sassanian King Shapur I and on long journeys to Khorasan, India and China. He is executed or allowed to die in prison, and claims to be a prophet of God. Mani combines Zoroastrian dualism with Christian theology, and his disciples gain wide support for Manichaeism, despite opposition from Roman Emperors.

title: 274

text: King Shapur II, ruler of the Persian Empire, age 70, dies after a 69-year reign in which he conquered Armenia and transferred multitudes of people from the western lands to Susiana (Khuzistan). The great town Nishapur in Khorasan (eastern Parthia) is also founded by him. His brother Ardashir II, governor-king of Adiabene, is placed by the nobles on the throne.

title: 379

text: The Ephthalites (White Huns) invade Western Asia and reduce the Sasanian Empire threat to the Eastern Roman Empire. King Bahram V sends an expeditionary force into Khorasan.

title: 427

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: The Hephthalites (White Huns) move south from the Altai Mountains region into Transoxiana, Bactria, Khorasan and eastern Persia.

title: 440

text: Summer – Hormizd IV refuses to give up territories, and breaks off negotiations with the Byzantine Empire. The Türks invade Khorasan and reach Hyrcania on the Caspian Sea.

title: 579

text: The Western Turks conquer the Oxus valley and cooperate with Heraclius against Persia, taking Khorasan (modern Afghanistan).

title: 622

text: The Rashidun army under Abdullah ibn Aamir invades Afghanistan, and captures the main forts in Khorasan (modern Iran). The Muslim Arabs occupy the cities of Balkh and Herat, which surrender peacefully.

title: 651

section: Events › By place › Arabian Caliphate

text: Arab armies conquer Khurasan (Iran), and the Silk Road along Transoxiana (Central Asia).

title: 655

text: Muslim Conquest: Arab forces of the Umayyad Caliphate resume the push to capture Persian lands, and begin to move towards the lands east and north of the plateau, towards Greater Khorasan (Iran) and the Silk Road along Transoxiana.

title: 662

section: Events › By place › Arab Empire

text: Arab forces gain power in Central Asia, as Qutayba ibn Muslim becomes governor of Khorasan. The region has grown rich from trade with China and Eastern Europe, its merchants dealing in silk, furs, amber, honey, and walrus ivory. During his rule, Qutayba subjugates the mercantile cities of Bukhara and Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan), as well as the Oxus delta area of Khwarezm, south of the Aral Sea.

title: 705

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

date: June 9

text: June 9 – Abbasid Revolution: Abu Muslim Khorasani, Persian military leader from Khorasan, begins an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which is carried out under the sign of the Black Standard. Close to 10,000 Muslims, primarily Khorasani Persians are under his command, when the hostilities officially begin in Merv (modern Turkmenistan).

title: AD 747

section: Events › By place › Islamic Empire

date: February 14

text: February 14 – Abbasid Revolution: The Hashimi rebels under Abu Muslim Khorasani take Merv, capital of the Umayyad province Khorasan (modern Iran), marking the consolidation of the Abbasid revolt. Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i takes the cities Nishapur and Rey, defeating an Umayyad army (10,000 men) at Gorgan.

title: 748

text: Rafi ibn al-Layth, an Arab nobleman, leads a large-scale rebellion against oppressive taxation by the Abbasid governor Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan. He launches a revolt in Samarkand, which spreads quickly across Khorasan.

title: 806

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Caliphate

text: Fourth Fitna: Abbasid caliph al-Amin appoints Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan as governor of Khurasan, in northeast Persia, and sends an army of 40,000 men with him against his half-brother al-Ma'mun. Ibn Mahan's army is defeated by a smaller army under Tahir ibn Husayn, at Rayy. During the fighting Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan is killed.

title: 811

text: Tahir ibn Husayn, an Iranian general, is appointed as governor of Khurasan, as a reward for supporting the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun in the Fourth Fitna.

title: 821

text: Muhammad ibn Tahir, Muslim governor of Khorasan, is overthrown by the Saffarids, led by Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, who conquer the capital, Nishapur. Khorasan is annexed to their own empire in eastern Persia. The Tahirid Dynasty falls.

title: 873

text: Spring – Forces under the Transoxianian emir Isma'il ibn Ahmad are victorious at Balkh (Northern Afghanistan) over Amr ibn al-Layth; the latter is captured and sent to Caliph Al-Mu'tadid in Baghdad. The Samanid Dynasty rules over Khorasan, as well as Transoxiana. A few months later, the Samanids conquer the Zaydid emirate of Tabaristan. This victory marks the beginning of the dispersion of the local Shi'ites by the new Sunni power.

title: 900

text: Emir Isma'il ibn Ahmad dies after a 15-year reign in which he has extended his borders to Tabaristan and Khorasan. He establishes independence throughout the eastern part of his empire from his capital at Bukhara. Isma'il is succeeded by his son Ahmad Samani as ruler of the Samanid Empire.

title: 907

text: The "Shroud of Saint Josse", a rich silk Samite camel cloth from Khurasan, is made. It is preserved in the Abbey of Saint-Josse-sur-Mer, near Caen (Normandy) (approximate date).

title: 961

section: Events › By topic › Art

date: May 4

text: May 4 (20 Safar 415) – The Ambassador from Khorasan to Egypt is received at Cairo by the Caliph al-Zahir.

title: 1024

text: The Seljuqs under Tughril Beg expel the Oghuz Turks from Khorasan and conquer Qazvin (modern Iran). They become the new masters of the Ziyarid dynasty (approximate date).

title: 1043

text: Alp Arslan succeeds his father Chaghri Beg as governor of Khorasan. He crosses with a Seljuk expeditionary force the upper Halys River and plunders the Theme of Sebasteia (modern Turkey).

title: 1059

section: Events › By place › Seljuk Empire

section: Births

text: Ahmad Sanjar, Seljuk ruler of Khorasan (approximate date)

title: 1085

text: Sultan Barkiyaruq dies in Borujerd (modern Iran) after a 13-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Malik-Shah II, but is deposed and killed by his uncle Muhammad I. Muhammad becomes ruler of the Seljuk Empire, but his brother Ahmad Sanjar (Seljuk ruler of Khorasan) holds more power as co-ruler.

title: 1105

date: November

text: November – Genghis Khan dispatches his youngest son Tolui, at the head of an army (around 50,000 men), into the Khwarazmian province of Khorasan. His forces also include 300 catapults, 700 mangonels to discharge pots filled with naphtha, 4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up moats. Among the first cities to fall is Termez (captured after a two-day siege) and later Balkh.

title: 1220

section: Events › By place › Mongol Empire

text: Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk, embarks on a pilgrimage from China to Jerusalem. He travels to Hotan, Kashgar, Taraz and Khorasan (modern Afghanistan).

title: 1275

date: December 2

text: December 2 – Battle of Merv: Shah Ismail I's defeats the Uzbek forces of Shaybani Khan, in Khorasan. Shaybani flees the battle only to be captured and killed by Ismail I troops, his head is turned into a skull cup used as a drinking goblet.

title: 1510

section: Culture & Society

date: September 24

text: September 24 – Shah Rukh becomes ruler of Greater Khorasan.

title: 1748

section: Events › July–September


slug: greater-poland

label: Greater Poland

description: historical region of Poland

text: Mieszko I, prince of Poland (approximate date) (d. 992)

title: 930

text: The tribe of the Polans begins the construction of the following fortified settlements (Giecz, Bnin, Ląd, Gniezno, Poznań, Grzybowo and Ostrów Lednicki) in Greater Poland. The Piast Dynasty under Duke Siemomysł gains control over other groups of Polans along the Upper Vistula, and establishes their rule around Giecz (approximate date).

title: 940

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Deaths

text: Mieszko I, a duke of the Piast Dynasty, becomes prince (de facto ruler) of Poland on the death of his father Siemomysł. Mieszko continues to subdue the neighbouring tribes under his control. Two obstacles to this plan are the Western Slav tribal group, the Veleti (also known as the Wilzi or "Wolf people") who are raiding Mieszko's lands for plunder; and the Saxon border dukes, who are pushing eastwards in search of new lands to conquer.

title: 960

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Gero I, margrave of Merseburg, campaigns against the Slavs. He forces Prince Mieszko I of the Polans in Poland to pay tribute to Emperor Otto I ( the Great). He expands his territory, the Marca Geronis (March of Gero), to the mouth of the Oder River.

title: 963

date: April 14

text: April 14 – Mieszko I, first duke and prince of Poland, is baptized a Christian, which is usually considered the foundation of the Polish state. Mieszko's baptism, under the influence of his wife Doubravka of Bohemia, brings his territories into the community of Christian countries. The lands ruled by Mieszko cover about 250,000 km², and are inhabited by about 1.2 million people around this time.

title: 966

section: Events › Europe

text: Bolesław I (the Brave), king of Poland (d. 1025)

title: 967

section: Religion & Belief

text: Mieszko I, duke and prince of Poland, constructs Poznań Cathedral within the fortified stronghold (gord) of Poznań. The settlement becomes a bishopric, Mieszko appoints Jordan as the first bishop.

title: 968

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Judith of Hungary, princess and queen of Poland (d. 988)

title: 969

text: Dobrawa, duchess consort of the Polans

title: 977

text: Fall – Mieszko I, duke and prince (de facto ruler) of Poland, abducts Oda of Haldensleben from the monastery of Kalbe (Saxony-Anhalt) and marries her. She becomes Mieszko's second wife and Duchess of the Polans.

title: 978

text: Jordan, bishop of Poland (or 984)

title: 982

text: Jordan, bishop of Poland (or 982)

title: 984

section: Conflict & Security

text: Mieszko I, duke (de facto) ruler of Poland, pledges his allegiance to Otto III and the Holy Roman Empire. He promises assistance in Otto's war against the Slavs.

title: 986

text: Bezprym (or Besfrim), duke of Poland (approximate date)

title: 986

text: Judith of Hungary, queen of Poland (approximate date)

title: 988

date: May 25

text: May 25 – Mieszko I, prince (duke) of Poland

title: 992

text: May 25 – Mieszko I, prince (duke) of the Polans, dies after a reign of more than 30 years at Poznań. He is succeeded by his son Bolesław I the Brave who becomes ruler of Poland. Having inherited the principality (located between the Oder and the Warta rivers), Bolesław forms an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire.

title: 992

text: Oda of Meissen, queen consort of Poland (approximate date)

title: 996

section: Crime & Justice

date: April 23

text: April 23 – Adalbert, exiled bishop of Prague, organises a mission to convert the Old Prussians in north-east Poland. On his way, Adalbert is murdered by pagans on the Baltic coast. His body is bought back for its weight in gold by Duke Bolesław I (the Brave).

title: 997

date: February 9

text: February 9 – Boleslaus III is restored to authority with armed support from Duke Bolesław I (the Brave) of Poland. The following months, Boleslaus' brothers Jaromír and Oldřich flee to Germany and place themselves under the protection of King Henry II, while Boleslaus orders the massacre of his Bohemian leading nobles at Vyšehrad.

title: 1003

text: German–Polish War: Duke Bolesław I of Poland loses Bohemia. With German support, Jaromír occupies Prague and proclaims himself the new duke. At Merseburg, he promises to hold Bohemia as a vassal of Henry II.

title: 1004

text: Maria Dobroniega of Kiev, duchess of Poland (d. 1087)

title: 1012

date: April 12

text: April 12 – Oldřich, Duke of Bohemia, deposes his brother Jaromír, who flees to Poland. Oldřich recognises the suzerainty of King Henry II of Germany over Bohemia. He secures his rule by suppressing the Vršovci insurgents.

title: 1012

text: King Henry II of Germany signs a peace treaty at Merseburg with Duke Bolesław I the Brave) of Poland. As part of the treaty, Bolesław pays homage and recognizes Henry as his overlord in exchange for receiving the March of Lusatia (including the town of Bautzen) and the March of Meissen as fiefs. To seal their peace, Bolesław's son Mieszko II marries Richeza of Lotharingia (granddaughter of the late Emperor Otto II).

title: 1013

text: Emperor Henry II launches a German expedition against Duke Bolesław I the Brave. He invades Poland, but is stopped by Bolesław's forces at Krosno, on the Oder River.

title: 1015

date: July 25

text: July 25 – Casimir I the Restorer, duke of Poland (d. 1058)

title: 1016

text: Emnilda, duchess consort of Poland

title: 1017

date: January 30

text: January 30 – The Peace of Bautzen: Emperor Henry II signs a peace treaty with Bolesław I the Brave, Duke of Poland, ending the German–Polish War. Poland keeps Lusatia – the Holy Roman Empire keeps Bohemia. With this peace agreement, Bolesław redirects his forces on an offensive against the Kievan Rus'.

title: 1018

text: Duke Bretislav I (Bohemian Achilles) of Bohemia of the Přemyslid Dynasty reconquers Moravia from Poland (approximate date).

title: 1029

text: King Mieszko II is forced to escape Poland after an attack of Grand Prince Yaroslav I ("the Wise") of Kiev, who installs Mieszko's half-brother Bezprym onto the Polish throne.

title: 1031

text: Bezprym (or Besfrim), duke of Poland

title: 1032

text: Treaty of Merseburg: Conrad II attends a Hoftag at Merseburg and signs an agreement with King Mieszko II. He divides Poland in three parts with Mieszko designated as supreme ruler, in exchange for Conrad's support.

title: 1033

date: May

text: May – King Mieszko II dies after a 6-year reign (probably killed as a result of a conspiracy) and is succeeded by his 17-year-old son Casimir I (the Restorer). A violent revolt spreads throughout Poland.

title: 1034

text: Casimir I, duke of Poland, succeeds in reuniting the realm which earns him the name "the Restorer". He signs a treaty with Bretislav I, duke of Bohemia, at Regensburg.

title: 1042

text: Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kiev makes an agreement with Duke Casimir I the Restorer of Poland that recognizes Chervyen as part of Kiev. The agreement is sealed with a double marriage – Casimir to Maria Dobroniega (a daughter of Vladimir the Great), and Iziaslav to Gertrude, Casimir's sister.

title: 1043

text: Władysław I Herman, duke of Poland (d. 1102)

title: 1044

date: November 28

text: November 28 – Casimir I the Restorer, duke of Poland (b. 1016)

title: 1058

text: Zbigniew, duke of Poland (d. 1113?)

title: 1073

date: June 4

title: 1102

text: June 4 – Władysław I Herman, duke of Poland, dies at Płock (possibly poisoned by his enemies) after a 23-year reign. He leaves the succession to be disputed between his sons Zbigniew and Bolesław III Wrymouth.

title: 1102

date: March 14

text: March 14 – Judith of Swabia, duchess of Poland (b. 1054)

title: 1105

text: Bolesław IV (the Curly), duke of Poland (approximate date)

title: 1125

text: Eudoxia of Kiev, high duchess of Poland (approximate date)

title: 1131

text: August 15 – Emperor Lothair III receives homage from Eric II, and makes him an imperial prince at the Reichstag. His diplomatic missions to Hungary and Poland result in a tribute payment. Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth is given Pomerania and Rügen as German fiefs.

title: 1135

text: Casimir II the Just, duke of Poland (d. 1194)

title: 1138

text: October 20 – Bolesław III Wrymouth dies after a 31-year reign. He divides Poland among his sons: Władysław II the Exile receives Silesia and the Senioral territories – which include the Kraków and Łęczyca regions, as well as parts of Kujawy and Greater Poland (Wielkopolska). Bolesław IV the Curly receives Masovia and Mieszko III the Old receives the newly established Duchy of Greater Poland. The 7-year-old Henry becomes duke of Sandomierz. Bolesław's last son, Casimir II the Just], receives nothing, as he is born 8 days after his father's death.

title: 1138

text: October 28 – Bolesław III (Wrymouth), duke of Poland (b. 1086)

title: 1138

text: Władysław II ("the Exiled"), High Duke of Poland, suffers a defeat against the coalition forces under his brother Bolesław IV ("the Curly"). Władysław and his family escape across the border to Bohemia and later seek refuge in Germany. Bolesław captures Silesia and the Senioral territories, and becomes the new ruler of Greater Poland.

title: 1146

text: Mieszko III the Old proclaims a Prussian crusade against the pagans and pressures the collaboration of Frederick I. He leaves Greater Poland in the hands of his younger brother Casimir II the Just.

title: 1166

text: August – Frederick I claims imperial authority over Bohemia, Greater Poland and Hungary. He installs his 3-year-old son Frederick V as duke of Swabia, after Frederick's cousin, Frederick IV, dies of disease at Rome.

title: 1167

text: Mieszko III (the Old), duke of Poland, travels to Germany to ask Frederick I to offer help in his restoration of the Polish throne, but Frederick demands a payment of 10,000 silver.

title: 1179

text: Mieszko III (the Old), duke of Greater Poland, agrees with his son Odon of Poznań to divide the territories between them: Mieszko hold his western lands and Odon receives the eastern lands south of the River Obra.

title: 1182

text: Władysław Odonic, duke of Greater Poland (d. 1239)

title: 1190

text: April 20 – Odon of Poznań, duke of Greater Poland

title: 1194

text: The Teutonic Knights undertake a new Crusade, attempting to subdue the pagan Prussians, who occupy a part of the Baltic coast. They are invited to Poland by High Duke Konrad I of Masovia, a grandson of Bolesław III Wrymouth. Their task is to defend Masovia against raids of the Prussians. After defeating them, the German knights set up their own state, which they named after the pagan people they have all but annihilated – Prussia.

title: 1226

text: November 24 – Leszek I (the White), High Duke of Poland

title: 1227

text: March 19 – Henry the Bearded, duke of Poland

title: 1238

text: June 26 – Przemysł II is crowned king of Poland at Gniezno, the first coronation of a Polish ruler in 219 years. Przemysł travels to Pomerelia where he confirms the privileges of the monasteries in Oliwa and Żarnowiec. He also visits other major cities: Gdańsk, Tczew and Świecie. In August, Przemysł returns to Greater Poland but in October he travels again to Gdańsk.

title: 1295

text: June 21 – At 14 years old, Wenceslaus III becomes ruler of Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland upon the death at age 33 of his father, King Wenceslaus II.

title: 1305

text: June 21 – Wenceslaus II, king of Bohemia and Poland (b. 1271)

title: 1305

text: August 4 – Wenceslaus III, king of Hungary, Croatia and Poland (b. 1289)

title: 1306

text: December 11 – In Poland, Henry the Faithful becomes the new duke of Silesia and of much of Wielkopolska

title: 1310

text: February 29 – The division of Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) is carried out by the sons of Henry III, Duke of Silesia-Glogau, with Konrad I and Bolesław receiving the eastern portion of Henry III's lands, and Henry IV, Jan and Przemko II retaining the rest.

title: 1312

text: December 12 – The noblemen of Lesser Poland meet at Wiślica and, as with the November 25 decision of the nobles of Greater Poland, vote to invite Jadwiga of Hungary to be their ruler.

title: 1382

text: November 25 – The nobles of Greater Poland assemble at Radomsko and, not wishing to be ruled by Mary' of Hungarys fiancee, the future Sigismund of Luxembourg, choose Mary's younger sister, Jadwiga, to become ruler of Poland.

title: 1382

text: December 27 – Greater Poland Uprising (1918–19): Poles in Greater Poland (the former Grand Duchy of Posen) rise up against the Germans, ignited by a patriotic speech made in Poznań by pianist and politician Ignacy Jan Paderewski.

title: 1918