slug: european-union

label: European Union

description: political and economic union of 27 European states

date: May 9

text: May 9 – Robert Schuman presents his proposal for the creation of a pan-European organisation, which he believes to be indispensable to the maintenance of permanently peaceful relations between the different nations of the continent. This proposal, known as the "Schuman Declaration", is considered to be the beginning of the creation of what becomes the European Union.

title: 1950

section: Events › May

date: March 25

text: March 25 – The Treaty of Rome (Patto di Roma) establishes the European Economic Community (EEC; predecessor of the European Union) between Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

title: 1957

text: January 1 – The United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and Denmark enter the European Economic Community, which later becomes the European Union.

title: 1973

text: January 1 – Greece enters the European Economic Community, predecessor of the European Union.

title: 1981

text: January 1 – Spain and Portugal enter the European Community, which becomes the European Union in 1993.

title: 1986

date: February 7

text: February 7 – The Maastricht Treaty is signed, founding the European Union.

title: 1992

date: November 1

text: November 1 – The Maastricht Treaty takes effect, formally establishing the European Union.

title: 1993

text: November 13 – Voters in Sweden decide to join the European Union in a referendum.

title: 1994

date: November 28

text: November 28 – Voters in Norway decide not to join the European Union in a referendum.

title: 1994

text: January 1 – Austria, Finland and Sweden join the European Union.

title: 1995

date: April 9

text: April 9 – In a common statement, the European Union officially recognises the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

title: 1996

date: March 21

text: March 21 – The European Union announces an arms embargo against Serbia and Montenegro.

title: 1998

section: Crime & Justice

date: July 1

text: July 1 – Europol (short for European Police Office) the European Union's criminal intelligence agency becomes fully operational.

title: 1999

date: April 16

text: April 16 – The Treaty of Accession is signed in Athens between the European Union and ten countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia), concerning these countries' accession into the EU, leading to the 2004 enlargement of the European Union.

title: 2003

date: March 8

text: March 8 – Malta approves joining the European Union in a referendum.

title: 2003

date: October 3

text: October 3 – Croatia and Turkey's accession negotiations to the European Union officially starts.

title: 2005

text: January 1 – Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union, while Slovenia joins the Eurozone.

title: 2007

date: December 22

text: December 22 – Serbia applied for membership to the European Union.

title: 2009

date: November 3

text: November 3 – The Czech Republic becomes the final member-state of the European Union to sign the Treaty of Lisbon, thereby permitting that document's initiation into European law.

title: 2009

date: October 2

text: October 2 – Ireland holds a second referendum on the EU's Lisbon Treaty. The amendment is approved by the Irish electorate, having been rejected in the Lisbon I referendum held last year.

title: 2009

date: April 27

text: April 27 – Standard & Poor's downgrades Greece's sovereign credit rating to junk 4 days after the activation of a €45-billion EU–IMF bailout, triggering the decline of stock markets worldwide and of the euro's value, and furthering a European sovereign debt crisis.

title: 2010

date: November 29

text: November 29 – The European Union agree to an €85 billion rescue deal for Ireland from the European Financial Stability Facility, the International Monetary Fund and bilateral loans from the United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden.

title: 2010

text: January 23 – Iran–European Union relations: the European Union adopts an embargo against Iran in protest of its continued effort to enrich uranium.

title: 2012

text: July 1 – Croatia becomes the 28th member of the European Union.

title: 2013

date: November 21

text: November 21 – Euromaidan pro-EU demonstrations begin in Ukraine after President Viktor Yanukovych rejects an economic association agreement between the European Union and Ukraine in favor of closer ties to Russia.

title: 2013

date: June 23

text: June 23 – The United Kingdom votes in a referendum to leave the European Union, triggering the so-called Brexit.

title: 2016

section: Religion & Belief

date: April 25

text: April 25 – The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) unanimously adopted a call to place Turkey back under monitoring due to setbacks in democracy, human rights, the rule of law, freedom of expression, and judicial independence. Turkey last officially exited the monitoring process in 2004 when it began accession negotiations with the European Union.

title: 2017

date: March 29

text: March 29 – The United Kingdom triggers Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty, starting the Brexit negotiations, the talks for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union.

title: 2017

section: Conflict & Security

date: May 20

text: May 20 – The 2018 Venezuelan presidential election was held with incumbent President Nicolás Maduro reelected with 67.8% of the vote and the lowest turnout in Venezuela's modern democratic history since the 1958 coup d'état. The elections were denounced as a "sham" by several Latin American countries, the United States, Canada, the Organization of American States and the European Union.

title: 2018

section: Health & Medicine

date: May 25

text: May 25 – The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) goes into effect, imposing strict privacy controls for European citizens worldwide.

title: 2018

date: February 12

text: February 12 – The Republic of Macedonia renames itself the Republic of North Macedonia, officially ending a decades-old dispute with Greece and paving the way for the former's integration into NATO and the EU.

title: 2019

date: December 24

text: December 24 – The United Kingdom and the European Union agree to a comprehensive free trade agreement prior to the end of the transition period.

title: 2020

date: April 28

text: April 28 – The European Union approves the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, governing the relationship between the EU and UK after Brexit.

title: 2021

text: May 19 – The European Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution calling for the formal suspension of accession negotiations between the European Union and Turkey.

title: 2021

text: February 14 – The European Parliament approves a ban on the sale of new petrol and diesel vehicles in the European Union from 2035, citing the need to combat climate change in Europe and promote electric vehicles.

title: 2023

text: July 9 – New Zealand signs a free trade agreement with the European Union, increasing bilateral trade.

title: 2023

text: March 13 – The Artificial Intelligence Act, the world's first comprehensive legal and regulatory framework for artificial intelligence, is passed by the European Union.

title: 2024

text: December 19 – EU leaders approve a €90bn ($105bn) loan for Ukraine for the next two years, which Kyiv will repay only once Russia pays reparations.

title: 2025

text: January 1 – Poland takes over the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, after the Hungarian presidency.

title: 2025


slug: eurozone

label: Eurozone

description: region of EU countries using the Euro

section: Economy & Finance

date: December 31

text: December 31 – In the Eurozone, the currency rates of this day are fixed permanently.

title: 1998

section: Events › December

date: January 1

text: January 1 – The Euro is introduced as the official physical currency in the Eurozone countries. The first physical transactions are carried out on Réunion. The former currencies of all the countries that use the Euro cease to be legal tender on February 28.

title: 2002

section: Events › January

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: January 1 – Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union, while Slovenia joins the Eurozone.

title: 2007

text: November 21 – Eurozone countries agree to a rescue package for the Republic of Ireland from the European Financial Stability Facility in response to the country's financial crisis.

title: 2010

section: Events › November

text: January 1 – Estonia officially adopts the Euro currency and becomes the 17th Eurozone country.

title: 2011

date: February 21

text: February 21 – Greek government-debt crisis: Eurozone finance ministers reach an agreement on a second, €130-billion Greek bailout.

title: 2012

section: Events › February

text: January 1 – Latvia adopts the euro as its currency and becomes the 18th member of the Eurozone.

title: 2014

text: January 1 – Lithuania officially adopts the euro as its currency, replacing the litas, and becomes the 19th Eurozone country.

title: 2015

date: July 10

text: July 10 – The ECB accepts Bulgaria and Croatia into ERM II, a mandatory stage for countries wishing to adopt the euro. This is the currency union's first major expansion in half a decade.

title: 2020

section: Events › July

text: January 1 – Croatia adopts the euro and joins the Schengen Area, becoming the 20th member state of the Eurozone and the 27th member of the Schengen Area. This is the first enlargement of the Eurozone since Lithuania's entry in 2015, and the first enlargement of the Schengen Area since Liechtenstein's entry in 2011.

title: 2023


slug: exarchate-of-ravenna

label: Exarchate of Ravenna

description: administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire (584–751)

text: The Basilica of San Vitale (Ravenna) is completed by bishop Maximianus, during the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna.

title: 546

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: The Exarchate of Ravenna is founded, and organised into a group of duchies, mainly coastal cities on the Italian Peninsula. The civil and military head of these Byzantine territories is the exarch (governor) in Ravenna.

title: 584

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Callinicus breaks the truce by kidnapping the Lombard daughter of King Agilulf, beginning a war with the Exarchate of Ravenna (approximate date).

title: 599

text: Eleutherius succeeds John I as exarch of Ravenna. He persecutes those implicated in the murder of John and the judges of the State. After making a courtesy visit to Pope Adeodatus I, Eleutherius captures Naples and kills the rebel leader John of Conza.

title: 615

section: Deaths

text: John I Lemigius, exarch of Ravenna

title: 615

section: Culture & Society

text: Adaloald, age 14, succeeds his father Agilulf as Lombard king of Italy. He reigns under his mother Theodelinda as regent. The Lombard Kingdom gradually begins to convert to Catholicism, and establishes peace with the Exarchate of the Byzantine Empire.

title: 616

text: December 24 – Pope John IV succeeds Severinus as the 72nd pope. His election is accepted by the Exarchate of Ravenna.

title: 640

text: Maurikios names himself dux of Rome, and revolts against exarch Isaac (Exarchate of Ravenna). He declares Rome's independence from the Exarchate and from the Byzantine Empire.

title: 643

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Plato, exarch (imperial governor) of Ravenna, invades the southern Po Valley. The Lombards under King Rothari defeat him on the banks of the Panaro River (near Modena); 8,000 imperial troops are killed.

title: 645

text: Constans II orders Olympius, exarch of the Exarchate of Ravenna, to arrest Pope Martin I on the ostensible grounds that the pope's election has not been submitted to the emperor for approval, but in fact because of the Lateran Council of 649's condemnation of Monothelitism and the Type of Constans. Olympius attempts to gain the support of the citizens of Rome and the bishops, with little success, and perhaps considers the assassination of the Pope.

title: 649

text: Emperor Constans II grants the request of Bishop Maurus of Ravenna, allowing the city to consecrate its bishop without approval from Rome (approximate date).

title: AD 666

text: The Quinisext Council is held in Constantinople; it lays the foundation for the Orthodox canon law. Justinian II suppresses non-Orthodox religious practices, and orders the arrest of Pope Sergius I; the militias of Rome and the Exarchate of Ravenna refuse, and take the pope's side.

title: 692

text: Faroald II, duke of Spoleto, attacks the Exarchate of Ravenna in Italy, after the death of his father Thrasimund I. King Aripert II of the Lombards, desiring good relations with the Byzantine Empire and papacy, refuses to assist him.

title: 703

date: October 18

text: October 18 – Pope John VII dies at Rome after a 19-month reign. A prolonged sede vacante exists, until the ratification of the election of Sisinnius by the Exarch of Ravenna, in early 708.

title: AD 707

text: A revolt breaks out in Italy against Leo's Iconoclasm; this results in the independence of the Exarchate of Ravenna, after part of a Byzantine invasion force is lost in a storm in the Adriatic Sea, and the remainder of Byzantine troops are repulsed.

title: AD 727

text: King Liutprand of the Lombards occupies all of the Exarchate of Ravenna. He advances towards Rome along the Via Cassia, and is met at the city of Sutri by Pope Gregory II, near the borders of the Duchy of Rome. Liutprand signs the Donation of Sutri, by which parts of Latium are given to the papacy (the first extension of papal territory in Italy). This marks the historical foundation of the Papal States.

title: 728

text: Battle of Ravenna: Byzantine troops under Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, are defeated by an Italian force, raised by Gregory II, in opposition to iconoclasm.

title: 729

text: King Liutprand contracts an alliance with Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, and agrees to support him in his attack on Rome, while subjugating the independent southern Lombard duchies of Benevento and Spoleto.

title: 730

text: Orso Ipato is murdered at the instigation of Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna. He is succeeded by Domenico Leoni, who is elected magister militum of Venice.

title: AD 737

text: The Lombards under King Liutprand sack the Exarchate of Ravenna, and threaten Rome. Pope Gregory III asks Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, to help fight the Lombards (he also requests assistance in fighting the Byzantines and the Arabs). Liutprand signs a peace accord, and pulls back his forces to Pavia. After the pope's appeal to the Franks, a relationship begins that will continue as the Frankish Kingdom gains power.

title: 739

text: King Aistulf of the Lombards captures Ravenna and the Romagna, ending the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. The last exarch Eutychius is killed by the Lombards. Aistulf threatens Rome, claiming a capitation tax. Pope Zachary, alarmed, appeals for aid from the Byzantine Empire, but his request is declined.

title: 751

text: Eutychius, Byzantine exarch of Ravenna

title: 751

text: Fall – Pope Stephen II travels to the Lombard capital of Pavia, for negotiations with Aistulf. His terms for returning the Exarchate of Ravenna are declined.

title: 753

text: Summer – The Franks under Pepin III invade Italy, and defeat the Lombards under King Aistulf, in the Susa Valley (Piedmont). He enforces the terms, including cession of the Exarchate of Ravenna to Rome.

title: 754

date: February 13

text: February 13 – Otto I and John XII co-sign the Diploma Ottonianum, confirming John XII as the spiritual head of the Catholic Church. Otto recognizes John XII's secular control over the Papal States – by expanding the domain over the Exarchate of Ravenna, the Duchy of Spoleto, and the Duchy of Benevento.

title: 962


slug: excommunication

label: Excommunication

description: censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit participation in a faith community

text: Emperor Anastasius I has Euphemius, patriarch of Constantinople, deposed and excommunicated. He appoints Macedonius II as his successor. Euphemius is sent into exile.

title: 496

date: November 19

text: November 19 – Pope Anastasius II dies after a 2-year reign in which he has tried to conciliate followers of Acacius, late patriarch of Constantinople, who was excommunicated by Felix III.

title: 498

text: The Second Council of Tours is held. It decrees that any cleric found in bed with his wife will be excommunicated.

title: 567

text: Byzantine Iconoclasm: Conflict erupts between Emperor Leo V and Patriarch Nikephoros, on the subject of iconoclasm. The latter is excommunicated.

title: 814

text: Winter – King Robert II (the Pious) is excommunicated by Gregory V. For reasons of consanguinity, his second marriage to Bertha of Burgundy is not accepted by the Catholic Church.

title: 998

date: May 14

text: May 14 – In Italy, more than 50 of the Fraticelli spiritualists of the Franciscan order of Tuscany are excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church by the Archbishop of Genoa after refusing to return to obedience to the Pope.

title: 1314

section: Events › April – June

date: April

text: April – Antipope Nicholas V is excommunicated by Pope John XXII.

title: 1329

section: Events › January–December

date: May 12

text: May 12 – Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.

title: 1497

section: Events › April–June


slug: exeter

label: Exeter

description: city in Devon, England

year_label: 50 CE

text: In Britain, governor Publius Ostorius Scapula begins his campaign against the recalcitrant Silures of south Wales, who are led by the former Catuvellaunian prince Caratacus. London (Londinium), Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum), Tripontium (near modern Rugby) and the fort of Manduessedum (near modern Atherstone) are founded (approximate date).

title: 50s

section: Events › 50 AD › Britain

section: Conflict & Security

text: Battle of Bampton: King Cynegils of Wessex defeats the invading Britons in Dumnonia (modern Devon). They use the Roman road eastward from Exeter to Dorchester, and are intercepted by the West Saxons marching south.

title: 614

section: Events › By place › Britain

text: King Penda of Mercia besieges Exeter in southwest England. King Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd lands with a force nearby, and negotiates an alliance with Penda.

title: 630

section: Religion & Belief

text: Boniface begins his education at an English Celtic Christian monastery, probably in Exeter near his birthplace and one of many monasteriola built by local landowners and churchmen.

title: 680

text: The Great Heathen Army, led by Guthrum, captures the fortress of Wareham (Dorset), and is met by a Viking army (3,500 men) from the sea, which lands at Poole Harbour. King Alfred the Great traps the Vikings, and demands hostages in return for a peace agreement. The Danes divide their forces; half flees to Exeter, where they besiege the town while the other half escape in their ships, but are lost in a storm near Swanage.

title: 876

text: Autumn – King Alfred the Great raises a large force, and marches on the Viking camp at the city of Exeter. His army besieges the Great Summer Army, led by Guthrum, and forces the Vikings to surrender. They flee north to Gloucester, and settle in the Five Boroughs (modern East Midlands).

title: 877

text: Spring – Prince Edward, the son of King Alfred the Great, defeats the Danish Viking raiders at Farnham, and forces them to take refuge on Thorney Island. At the same time, Danes from East Anglia sail around the Cornish coast, and besiege Exeter.

title: 893

text: The Vikings in Northumbria and East Anglia swear allegiance and hand over hostages to King Alfred the Great, but promptly break their truce by attacking the southwest of England. A Viking force returns from Exeter and sails along the coast, in an attempt to plunder Chichester. They are defeated by the Saxon garrison, losing many ships and men.

title: 894

text: King Edward the Confessor unites the English dioceses of Devon and Cornwall. He moves the see from Crediton to Exeter and gives the order to build a cathedral. Leofric becomes the first bishop of Exeter.

title: 1050

text: Winter – William I marches on Exeter, which he besieges. The city holds out for 18 days, and after its fall William builds Rougemont Castle there to secure the region.

title: 1067

section: Events › By place › England

text: Siege of Exeter: Norman forces under King William I (the Conqueror) take the city of Exeter after a siege of 18-days.

title: 1068

section: Crime & Justice

date: August 25

text: August 25 – Following the Bideford witch trial, three women (probably) become the penultimate known to be hanged for witchcraft in England, at Exeter.

title: 1682

section: Events › July–September

text: Alice Molland becomes the last known person in England to be sentenced to death for witchcraft, in Exeter.

title: 1685

section: Events › Date unknown

text: November 19 (November 9 OS) – William of Orange captures Exeter, after the magistrates flee the city.

title: 1688

section: Events › October–December


slug: falkland-islands

label: Falkland Islands

description: archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, and a British Overseas Territory, disputed by Argentina

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: August 9

text: August 9 – English explorer John Davis, commander of the Desire, probably discovers the Falkland Islands.

title: 1592

date: February 2

text: February 2 – England's Admiral Richard Hawkins and the crew of the ship HMS Dainty become the first Europeans to see the Falkland Islands.

title: 1594

section: Events › January–March

date: January 24

text: January 24 – Sebald de Weert makes the first recorded sighting of the Falkland Islands.

title: 1600

date: January 27

text: January 27 – The crew of the ship HMS Welfare, commanded by John Strong, become the first European people to land at the Falkland Islands.

title: 1690

date: October 4

text: October 4 – The kingdom of France formally cedes its rights to the Malouines Islands to Spain. On March 24, Spain renames the islands the Malvinas, and in 1833, the United Kingdom re-colonises the recently abandoned territory and renames it the Falkland Islands.

title: 1766

date: June 9

text: June 9 – Falklands Crisis (1770): Some 1,600 Spanish marines, sent by the Spanish governor of Buenos Aires in five frigates, seize Port Egmont in the Falkland Islands. The small British force present promptly surrenders.

title: 1770

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: January 3

text: January 3 – The United Kingdom reasserts British sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean.

title: 1833

date: March 19

text: March 19 – Argentine scrap metal workers (infiltrated by marines) raise the flag of Argentina on South Georgia and the Falkland Islands, two British overseas territories.

title: 1982

section: Events › March

date: May 15

text: May 15 – Argentine President Raúl Alfonsín terminates Argentine administration of the Falkland Islands but does not relinquish Argentina's claim to the islands.

title: 1985

section: Events › May

date: February 15

text: February 15 – The United Kingdom and Argentina restore diplomatic relations after 8 years. The UK had severed ties in response to Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands, a British Dependent Territory, in 1982.

title: 1990

section: Events › February

date: October 23

text: October 23 – At the end of an 11-year demining process, the Falkland Islands are declared free of land mines, 38 years after the end of the 1982 war.

title: 2020

section: Events › October


slug: faroe-islands

label: Faroe Islands

description: North Atlantic archipelago organized as an autonomous constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark

text: Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson sets out from the Faroe Islands and discovers Iceland (documented later in the Landnámabók) (approximate date).

title: 815

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Grímur Kamban becomes the first man to set foot in the Faroe Islands, and settles down in Funningur, on the northwest coast of Eysturoy (beginning the Norwegian Viking era on the islands).

title: 825

text: Sigmundur Brestisson, a Viking chieftain, introduces Christianity in the Faroe Islands.

title: AD 999

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: The Diocese of Faroe is founded (approximate date).

title: 1100

section: Culture & Society

date: July 29

text: July 29 – At the age of 10, King Olaf II of Denmark is proclaimed as King Olaf IV of Norway, with his mother Margete) as regent. Iceland and the Faroe Islands, as parts of Norway, pass under the Danish crown.

title: 1380

text: Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney, takes control of the Shetland Islands and the Faroe Islands.

title: 1391

date: July 20

text: July 20 – Queen Margaret I of Denmark, Norway and Sweden publishes the Treaty of Kalmar, proposing the personal union of the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway (with Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland and Orkney) and Sweden (including Finland and Åland).

title: 1396

section: Events › April–June

date: June 17

text: June 17 – Erik of Pomerania is crowned in Kalmar (Sweden) as ruler of the Kalmar Union, a personal union of the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway (with Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland and Orkney) and Sweden (including Finland and Åland) engineered by Queen Margaret I of Denmark, his great-aunt and adoptive mother, who retains de facto power in the realm.

title: 1397

text: Frederick III of Denmark-Norway gives control of the Faroe Islands to Christoffer Gabel and his son, which will last until 1709.

title: 1655

date: April 18

text: April 18 – Ornithologist Carl Julian (von) Graba lands in the little-studied Faroe Islands for a three-month visit to research the bird life.

title: 1828

date: April 12

text: April 12 – The Faroe Islands are occupied by British troops, following the German invasion of Denmark. This action is taken to avert a possible German occupation of the islands, with serious consequences for the course of the Battle of the Atlantic.

title: 1940

section: Events › April


slug: fars-province

label: Fars province

description: province of Iran

section: Conflict & Security

text: King Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, gains support from some Parthian sub-kings and revolts against the rule of Vologases VI. Ardashir, a grandson of Sasan, had ruled Persis since 208 and six years earlier gained control of the region surrounding Persepolis.

title: 220

section: Events › By place › Parthian Empire

section: Religion & Belief

text: Summer – Ali ibn Buya, a Samanid governor, takes advantage of the anarchy in Persia and conquers Fars (modern Iran). He founds the Buyid Dynasty, and makes Shiraz his capital. Ali seeks the recognition of the Abbasid caliph Ar-Radi, who confirms him later as his viceroy.

title: 934

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Caliphate

section: Births

text: Sharaf al-Dawla, Buyid emir of Kerman and Fars (approximate date)

title: 960

section: Deaths

text: Sharaf al-Dawla, Buyid emir of Kerman and Fars (b. 960)

title: 989

text: Sultan al-Dawla, Buyid emir of Fars (d. 1024)

title: 993

text: Sultan al-Dawla, Buyid emir of Fars (b. 993)

title: 1024

text: Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun, Buyid emir of Fars

title: 1062

section: Climate & Environment

date: April 10

text: April 10 – The 6.7 Qir earthquake shakes southern Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 5,374 people in the province of Fars.

title: 1972


slug: fatimid-caliphate

label: Fatimid Caliphate

description: Egyptian Shia Islamic caliphate (909–1171)

text: Al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate (d. 946)

title: 893

text: The future founder of the Fatimid Caliphate, Abdallah al-Mahdi and his family migrate to North Africa. They claim to be descendants of Fatimah, the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

title: 900

text: Abu 'Abdullah al-Shi'i leads the rebellion of the Kutama Berbers (a movement of the Shiʿite Fatimids), against the Aghlabid emirate in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia).

title: 901

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

text: The Kutama tribe under Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i revolt against the Aghlabids. He begins a campaign and dispatches an invitation to the Fatimid spiritual leader Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah to support him.

title: 902

date: March 18

text: March 18 – The Fatimid Dynasty founded by Shiite Muslims in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) gains suzerainty over the Aghlabid Dynasty in North Africa. Emir Ziyadat Allah III escapes to the Near East, unable to secure any help from the Abbasid Caliphate to regain his emirate.

title: 909

section: Events › By place › Africa

text: A rebellion of the Kutama Berbers against the Fatimid Caliphate occurs. The Kutama tribesmen were previously the main supporters of the Shia regime.

title: AD 911

text: The second rebellion in two years, of the Kutama tribesmen against the Fatimid Caliphate, occurs.

title: 912

text: Caliph Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid Caliphate replaces the unpopular governor Ibn Abi Khinzir with Ali ibn Umar al-Balawi. But the Sicilian lords find this unacceptable and decide to declare independence of Sicily. They acknowledge allegiance to the Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtadir and acclaim an Aghlabid prince, Ahmed ibn Khorob, as emir of Sicily. The Sicilians re-launch their conquest of Byzantine Calabria, while Ahmed ibn Khorob in Sicily leads a successful assault against the North African cities of Sfax and Tripoli.

title: 913

text: January 24 – The Fatimid general, Hubasa ibn Yusuf of the Kutama Berber tribe, marches out with his troops to invade Egypt. He follows the coastline, and takes possession of the only two towns of any size Syrte and Ajdabiya, without a struggle. The garrisons of the two towns—the westernmost outposts of the Abbasid Caliphate—have already fled.

title: 914

text: Sicilian Berbers in Agrigento revolt and depose the independent Emir Ahmed ibn Khorob. They offer Sicily to the Fatimid Caliphate in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia). Caliph Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah welcomes this turn of events, but refuses to grant the Berber rulers their autonomy. He sends a Fatimid expeditionary force under Abu Said Musa which lands in Sicily and, with some difficulty, takes control of the island. Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah appoints Salam ibn Rashid as the emir of Sicily. Ahmed ibn Khorob is dispatched to Raqqada and executed.

title: 916

date: April 5

text: April 5 – The Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia) launch the second Fatimid invasion of Egypt (919–921) in an attempt to seize Egypt from its Abbasid rulers. The expedition fails and the Fatimids will be forced to retreat.

title: 919

section: Events › By Place › Africa

text: The Fatimid Caliphate crushes Idrisid forces in battle, capturing the cities of Tlemcen and Fez.

title: 921

date: November

text: November – (Shaban 312 AH) Hamd bin Khazar, leader of the Zenata Berber nomads in the high plateau of central Algeria, sets an ambush that kills Massala ibn Habus, the Fatimid Governor of Tahert.

title: 924

section: Events › October—December

section: Crime & Justice

date: July 4

text: July 4 — At the age of 12, Shabbethai Donnolo, who will become one of the most prominent physicians in Italy and the doctor to the Byzantine court, is kidnapped by Arab slavers as a Fatimid expeditionary force, led by Jafar ibn Obeid, lands in Abruzzo in southern Italy and overruns Apulia and the city of Otranto. After defeating the Byzantine garrisons, the Arabs lay siege to the castle of Oria and destroy it, killing the defenders and taking the women and children as slaves back to North Africa. Donnolo's family pays a ransom and the Fatimid Amir Abu Ahmad Ja'far ibn 'Ubaid sets him free.

title: 925

section: Events › By date › July – December

date: September

text: September — The Chamberlain Ja'far ibn Ubayd of the Fatimid Caliphate returns to the Fatimid capital of Mahdiya (now in Tunisia) after a successful 17-month campaign to pillage the Byzantine-ruled island of Sicily.

title: 925

date: August 15

text: August 15 – Led by the Slavic Sabir, the Fatimids from Sicily, capture and destroy Taranto. They enslave much of the population.

title: 927

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Emir Abd al-Rahman III of Córdoba, Spain, proclaims himself caliph and creates the Caliphate of Córdoba. He breaks his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs.

title: 929

text: Fatimid forces fail to seize the Maghreb al-Aqsa (modern Morocco) from the local Berber tribes allied to the Iberia-based Caliphate of Córdoba.

title: 933

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Summer – Fatimid caliph al-Qa'im dispatches a naval expedition under Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi to raid the coast of Provence and Liguria, sacking Genoa on 16 August and attacking Pisa. Ya'qub also raids Corsica and Sardinia before returning to Mahdia with some 8,000 prisoners.

title: 935

text: Spring – Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid, ruler of Egypt and Syria, defeats the Fatimid forces near Alexandria. He drives them out of the city, forcing the Fatimids to retreat from Egypt to their base at Cyrenaica.

title: 936

text: Abu Yazid, a Kharijite Berber leader, launches a rebellion in the Aurès Mountains (modern Algeria) against the Fatamids, seeking aid from the Caliphate of Córdoba in Al-Andalus.

title: 944

date: August 19

text: August 19 – Abu Yazid, a Kharijite Berber leader who has led a rebellion against the Fatimid Caliphate in Ifriqiya, is defeated in the Hodna Mountains (modern-day Algeria). Caliph al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah sets about restoring the Fatimid dominion over North Africa.

title: 947

text: Spring – Fatimid forces under al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi suppress the rebellion in Palermo and swiftly seize the island. Caliph al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah appoints Ali al-Kalbi as emir of Sicily, beginning the rule of the Kalbid dynasty.

title: 948

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Abd ar-Rahman III signs a peace in 951 with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids, whose ships are harassing the caliphal fleet in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd ar-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieges the Fatimid port of Tunis, which purchases its safety through a huge sum.

title: 951

section: Events › By place › China

text: Summer – Kalbid forces under Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi (an aristocratic member of the ruling Fatimid Caliphate) sail from Sicily and invade Byzantine Calabria. He attacks several towns, including Gerace and Cassono.

title: 952

text: March 19 – Caliph al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah dies after a severe illness. He is succeeded by his 21-year-old son al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah as ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate. His authority is recognized over most of what later will be Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.

title: 953

text: The Kharijite Banu Ya'la tribe revolts against the Fatimid Caliphate in Ifriqiya and destroys the city of Oran (modern Algeria). They construct a new capital, Ifgan, near Mascara.

title: 955

date: May 10

text: May 10 – Al-Aziz Billah, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate (d. 996)

title: 955

text: Summer – Siege of Chandax: A Byzantine fleet with an expeditionary force (comprising about 50,000 men) under Nikephoros Phokas lands on Crete. Nikephoros defeats the Muslim resistance and begins a siege at the capital of Chandax. He decides to blockade the city for the winter, while his engineers begin to construct siege engines. Emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb sends for aid by the Fatimids in Ifriqiya and the Caliphate of Córdoba (modern Spain).

title: 960

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Battle of the Straits: The Byzantine attempt to recover Sicily fails, when the Byzantine fleet is annihilated by the Fatimids. The last Byzantine stronghold on the island, Rometta, surrenders. The population is massacred, and the survivors are sold into slavery. Caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah completes the conquest of Sicily, and establishes naval superiority in the Western Mediterranean.

title: 965

text: John VII, patriarch of Jerusalem, is burned at the stake by a Muslim mob after writing to Emperor Nikephoros II, pleading him to intervene in Palestine and retake it from the Fatimid Caliphate.

title: 966

text: The Fatimid general Jawhar al-Siqilli launches a military campaign in the west of the Maghreb. He resumes his expansion, together with the Zirids, and conquers Fez (modern-day Morocco).

title: 967

text: Battle of Alexandretta: The Byzantines defeat a Fatimid force (4,000 men) near Alexandretta (modern Turkey), while the main Fatimid army is besieging the fortress city of Antioch. Coupled with news of an advance against Damascus of the Qarmatians, the Fatimids are forced to lift the siege and withdraw to Egypt.

title: 971

section: Events › By place › Middle East

text: First Qarmatian invasion of Egypt: The Qarmatians under al-Hasan al-A'sam invade Syria, recently conquered by the Fatimid Caliphate, capturing Damascus and Ramla, defeating a major Fatimid army and blockading another in Jaffa. A subsequent invasion of Egypt leads to widespread anti-Fatimid revolts in the Nile Delta, but the delay allows the Fatimid general Jawhar to prepare his defences, leading to the decisive Qarmatian at Ayn Shams on 24 December and the collapse of the invasion.

title: 971

text: Caliph Al-Mu'izz transfers the royal residence of the Fatimid Caliphate from El-Mansuriya (modern Tunisia) to the newly founded city of Cairo in Egypt. Egypt becomes the autonomous centre of the Fatimid Caliphate. He leaves general Buluggin ibn Ziri to govern the Western North African territories, which will become the province of Al-Maghreb (meaning the West).

title: 973

text: The Qarmatians are defeated north of Cairo by Fatimid forces under General Jawhar al-Siqilli. He consolidates Fatimid rule and sends a legation to the Christian land of Nubia to secure the southern border of Egypt. Arab traders introduce Islam to the population, which gradually supplants Christianity.

title: 974

date: December 21

text: December 21 – Caliph Al-Mu'izz dies in Egypt after a 22-year reign in which he has extended his realm from Sicily to the Atlantic. He is succeeded by his son Al-Aziz Billah as ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate.

title: 975

date: October 16

text: October 16 – Caliph Al-Hakam II dies after a 15-year reign in which he has ended the Fatimid Caliphate in Morocco and made the University of Córdoba the greatest institution in the world. Al-Hakam is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Hisham II as ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba. His widow Subh becomes regent together with Almanzor the de facto rulers.

title: 976

text: Fall – Fatimid troops under the defecting Hamdanid governor of Homs, Bakjur, attack Aleppo (modern Syria), but are repulsed through the intervention of the Byzantine army. Bardas Phokas (the Younger) sacks the city, while Bakjur flees to Fatimid territory in Egypt.

title: 983

text: Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque by orders of the Fatimid vizier Gawar Al-Siqilli begins in Cairo (modern Egypt).

title: 990

date: September 15

text: September 15 – Battle of the Orontes: Fatimid forces, under Turkish general Manjutakin (also the governor of Damascus), besiege Apamea (modern Syria). Emperor Basil II sends a Byzantine expeditionary army, led by Dux Michael Bourtzes, to relieve the city in alliance with the Hamdanid Dynasty. Manjutakin defeats the Hamdanids with his forces and attacks the Byzantine force in the rear. The Byzantine army panics and flees, losing some 5,000 men in the process.

title: 994

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Basil II launches a counter-campaign against the Fatimid Caliphate. He leads a Byzantine expeditionary army (13,000 men) to aid the Hamdanid emir Sa'id al-Dawla, and crosses Asia Minor in only sixteen days. Basil lifts the siege of Aleppo, and takes over the Orontes Valley. He incorporates Syria into the Byzantine Empire (including the larger city of Antioch) which is the seat of its eponymous Patriarch.

title: 995

section: Events › Asia › Byzantine Empire

text: October 14 – Caliph Al-Aziz Billah dies at Bilbeis in Egypt after a 21-year reign in which he has expanded his Shiite caliphate at the expense of the Byzantines, using Turkish mercenaries (Mamelukes). He is succeeded by his 11-year-old son Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah as ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate (until 1021).

title: 996

text: Summer – Revolt of Tyre: The city of Tyre (modern Lebanon) is stormed by forces of the Fatimid Caliphate. A Byzantine squadron attempts to reinforce but is repulsed by the Fatimid navy. The defenders are massacred or taken captive to Egypt. The Byzantine captives are executed.

title: 998

text: Barjawan, vizier and regent of the Fatimid Caliphate

title: AD 1000

text: Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sends a tributary mission to Emperor Zhenzong of the Song dynasty in order to reestablish trade relations between the Fatimid Caliphate and China (approximate date).

title: 1008

text: October 18 – The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is destroyed by the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

title: 1009

text: The Baghdad Manifesto is ordered by Caliph Al-Qadir of the Abbasid Caliphate, in response to the growth of the Fatimid-supporting Ismaili sect of Islam within his borders.

title: 1011

text: Summer – The climax of the Bedouin anti-Fatimid rebellion in Palestine is reached. Abu'l-Futuh al-Hasan ibn Ja'far is acclaimed as anti-Caliph with the title of al-Rashid bi-llah ("Righteous with God").

title: 1012

text: Summer – Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad publicly declares the founding of the Druze religion, during the reign of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

title: 1017

text: Sitt al-Mulk, Fatimid princess and regent (b. 970)

title: 1023

text: February 5 – At Cairo in the Fatimid Caliphate, the Caliph al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah attains full power upon the death of his aunt, Sitt al-Mulk.

title: 1023

text: January 16 – (21 Shawwal 413 AH) The Grand Vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt is executed only nine months after succeeding Khatir-al-Mulk.

title: 1023

text: February 25 – (23 Dhu l-Hijja 415 AH) In the Fatimid Caliphate, Badr al-Dawla Nafidh leads a group of Egyptian soldiers and white slave soldiers from Cairo to end a black slave rebellion in the famine-stricken Egyptian capital, Fustat.

title: 1025

text: July 5 – Al-Mustansir Billah, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate (d. 1094)

title: 1029

text: June 13 – Caliph al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah dies after a 16-year reign. He is succeeded by his 6-year-old son al-Mustansir as ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate. Vizier Ali ibn Ahmad al-Jarjara'i will guide the regency for the first few years.

title: 1036

text: The Zirid dynasty rejects Shi'ite obedience and Fatimid domination, and recognizes the Abbasids as their overlords.

title: 1041

text: The Banu Hilal, a confederation of tribes of Arabia, begin their invasion in the Maghreb (North Africa). They are organized by the Egyptian Fatimid Caliphate to punish their former Zirid vassals.

title: 1049

text: Abu Muhammad al-Yazuri, vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate

title: 1058

text: August 30 — The Mirdasids under Mahmud ibn Nasr defeat the Fatimid Caliphate's army under Nasir al-Dawla Ibn Hamdan at the Battle of al-Funaydiq, leading to the definitive loss of Aleppo for the Fatimids.

title: 1060

text: Al-Afdal Shahanshah, vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate (d. 1121)

title: 1066

text: Spring – Badr al-Jamali becomes Chief Wazir (Grand Vizier) and effectively military dictator of the Fatimid Caliphate under Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah in Egypt.

title: 1074

text: August – Fatimid forces under Caliph Al-Musta'li recapture Jerusalem and occupy Palestine. The Crusaders threaten the borders of the Fatimid Caliphate which already has lost the Emirate of Sicily (see 1091).

title: 1098

text: September 7 – Battle of Ramla: A Crusader force (some 1,100 men) under Baldwin I defeats the invading Fatimids at Ramla (modern Israel). Baldwin plunders the Fatimid camp and the survivors flee to Ascalon.

title: 1101

text: August 27 – Battle of Ramla: The Crusaders under King Baldwin I defeat a Fatimid expeditionary force (some 15,000 men) at Ramla. Baldwin pillages the enemy camp – but does not further pursue the Fatimids. The battle ends in the last large-scale attempt of the Fatimids to reconquer Palestine.

title: 1105

text: Baldwin I marches out against Sidon, with the support of a squadron of sailor-adventurers from various Italian cities. A Fatimid fleet from Egypt defeats the Italians in a sea-battle outside the harbour.

title: 1108

text: February–May – Crusaders under Baldwin I besiege Beirut. Genoese and Pisan ships blockade the harbour; Fatimid ships from Tyre and Sidon try in vain to break the blockade. The Fatimid governor flees by night through the Italian fleet to Cyprus. On May 13, Baldwin captures the city by assault and the Italians carry out a massacre among the inhabitants.

title: 1110

text: February 13 – Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi is formally proclaimed vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate by Caliph al-Amir.

title: 1122

text: May 29 – Battle of Yibneh: A Crusader army led by Eustace Grenier defeats the Fatimid forces (16,000 men) near Ibelin. Despite the numerical superiority, Vizier Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi is forced to withdraw to Egypt while his camp is plundered by the Crusaders. Eustace returns to Jerusalem in triumph, but later dies on June 15.

title: 1123

text: Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi, vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate

title: 1125

text: October 3 – Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi, the vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate, is dismissed and imprisoned by Caliph al-Amir.

title: 1125

text: October 8 – Al-Hafiz, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate

title: 1149

text: The city of Ascalon is fortified with 53 towers by order of the 17-year-old Caliph Al-Zafir, as it is the most strategic frontier fortress of the Fatimid Caliphate.

title: 1150

text: Summer – Nur al-Din, Seljuk ruler (atabeg) of Aleppo, re-captures most of Crusader territory in the Orontes Valley – reducing the Principality of Antioch to little more than a narrow coastal strip along the Mediterranean. The County of Tripoli remains unchanged and Jerusalem remains a potential threat with ambitions to expand eastward, while also striving to dominate the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt.

title: 1152

text: August 19 – Siege of Ascalon: King Baldwin III of Jerusalem captures Ascalon, the last Fatimid fortress in Palestine. The citizens are allowed to leave in peace and return to Egypt.

title: 1153

text: Spring – Saladin accompanies his uncle, General Shirkuh, with an army sent to the Fatimid Caliphate (modern Egypt) by Nur al-Din, ruler (atabeg) of Syria.

title: 1164

text: March 23 – Shirkuh dies from over-eating after a 2-month reign. He is succeeded by Saladin, who is appointed chief vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate. He takes over as commander of Nur al-Din's forces in Egypt.

title: 1169

text: September 13 – Caliph Al-Adid dies of natural causes (or poisoning) after a 11-year reign. Saladin overthrows the Fatimid Caliphate, and takes over as governor (atabeg) of Egypt – ruling in the name of Emir Nur al-Din.

title: 1171

text: Pro-Fatimid rising in Upper Egypt led by Kanz al-Dawla, governor of Aswan, is crushed by Saladin's brother Al-Adil.

title: 1173

text: March 31 – A conspiracy against Saladin, aiming to restore the Fatimid Caliphate, is revealed in Cairo, involving senior figures of the former Fatimid regime and the poet Umara al-Yamani. Modern historians doubt the extent and danger of the conspiracy reported in official sources, but its ringleaders will be publicly executed over the following weeks.

title: 1174


slug: faxian

label: Faxian

description: Chinese Buddhist monk (bhikkhu), pilgrim to India, and travelogue author during the Jin and Liu Song dynasties

text: Faxian, Chinese Buddhist monk, traveler (approximate date)

title: 337

text: Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, travels to India, Sri Lanka and Kapilavastu (modern Nepal).

title: 399

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, makes a pilgrimage to India, initiating Sino-Indian relations. Stirred by his faith to Buddhism, he visits the sites of Siddhartha Gautama's life.

title: 402

text: Faxian, Chinese traveler, arrives in India. He visits the major seats of Buddhist learning (Udyana, Peshawar, and Taxila).

title: 406

text: Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, spends 2 years in Ceylon and is more than 200 days at sea as storms drive his ship off its course, but returns with sacred Buddhist texts back to China (see 414).

title: 412

section: Events › By topic › Religion

section: Religion & Belief

text: Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, returns from India and begins translating Buddhist works into Chinese.

title: 414

text: Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler (approximate date)

title: 422

date: December 1

text: December 1 – Archaeologist Alois Anton Führer, Nepalese General Khadga Samsher Rana and an expedition rediscover the great stone pillar of Ashoka at Lumbini, traditionally the spot of the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, after using Faxian's records.

title: 1896

section: Events › December


slug: february

label: February

description: second month in the Julian and Gregorian calendars

section: Conflict & Security

text: c. February – May – Battle of Jieting: The Cao Wei Kingdom decisively defeats the Shu Han Kingdom.

title: 228

date: February

text: February – May – Battle of Jianwei: The state of Shu Han is victorious over the state of Cao Wei.

title: 229

text: February: Emperors Constantine I and Licinius convene in Mediolanum (modern Milan). Licinius marries Constantine's half-sister Constantia, and they issue the Edict of Milan. This edict ends the Great Persecution against the Christians and is the first piece of legislation in western history to decree freedom of religion. It also returns property confiscated from Christians. The edict is posted in Nicomedia on June 13.

title: 313

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Culture & Society

text: February – Julian, Roman Caesar, is proclaimed emperor in Lutetia (modern Paris).

title: AD 360

text: February – The Lentienses (part of the Alemanni) cross the frozen Rhine and raid the countryside. They are driven back by Roman auxilia palatina (Celtae and Petulantes), who defend the western frontier.

title: 378

text: February – Chinese General Li Daliang leads an army to retake the Yu prefecture, near Xuancheng in what is now the Anhui province, from the rebel leader Fu Gongshi.

title: 624

section: Events › By date › January–June

section: Deaths

text: February – King Ansprand dies, and is succeeded by his son Liutprand as ruler of the Lombards. During his reign, Liutprand becomes the greatest of the Lombard Kings. Coins and documents from his court at Pavia confirm the impression of a strong and effective monarch.

title: 712

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: February – Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah of the Umayyad Caliphate inflicts a crushing defeat on the Khazars of what is now Russia in a battle fought between the Cyrus and Araxes Rivers.

title: 724

section: Events › By date

text: February – King Liutprand of the Lombards dies of natural causes after a 32-year reign, in which he has defeated the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento, bringing the Lombard Kingdom to the height of her power. He is succeeded by Hildeprand, called "the Useless" (nephew or grandson of Liutprand), as ruler of the Lombards.

title: 744

text: February – Council of Hieria: Emperor Constantine V summons a Christian council in the palace of Hieria in Constantinople. The council, under the presidency of Bishop Theodosius of Ephesus, supports the policy of Iconoclasm and condemning the use of religious images (icons) in the Byzantine Empire. Constantine increases the persecution of the monasteries; hundreds of monks and nuns are mutilated or put to death.

title: 754

text: February – Duke Borna of Croatia dies after an 11-year reign, as vassal of the Frankish Empire. He is succeeded by his nephew, Vladislav. Emperor Louis I recognizes him as prince of Dalmatia and Liburnia, at the Council of Aachen.

title: 821

section: Climate & Environment

text: February – A major earthquake strikes Byzantium in Asia Minor (now part of western Turkey) and part of Greece, damaging the city walls of Theodosiopolis (now Barbaros in Turkey) and Heraclea Perinthus at the same time that the forces of Byzantine Emperor Michael II the Amorian are suppressing the rebellion by Thomas the Slav. Both cities surrender after the natural event.

title: 824

text: February – King Arnulf of Carinthia invades Italy at the head of an East Frankish expeditionary army. He storms Rome (the Leonine City), and has himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Formosus at St. Peter's. Arnulf sets out to establish his authority in Spoleto, but suffers a stroke; he is forced to call off the campaign, and returns to Bavaria.

title: 896

text: February – King Louis III (the Blind) is crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Benedict IV at Rome. His rival Berengar I seeks refuge in Bavaria at the court of King Louis IV (the Child).

title: 901

text: February – March – Abu Abbas Abdallah, conqueror of Reggio Calabria, returns from Sicily and succeeds his father Ibrahim II as Aghlabid emir of Ifriqiya.

title: 902

text: February - Chotoku Incident: Fujiwara no Korechika and Takaie shoot an arrow at Retired Emperor Kazan.

title: 996

text: February – In what was the Kingdom of Israel, Fath al-Qal'i, the Fatimid Governor of Jerusalem, and Anushtakin al-Dizbari, the Governor of Palestine, make a successful assault on Ramla against Hassan ibn Mufarrij al-Jarrah, the leader of the Jarrahids of Syria.

title: 1025

section: Events

text: February – At an Imperial Diet in Pavia (assembled by Conrad II), Aribert is accused of fomenting a revolt against the Holy Roman Empire, Conrad orders his arrest.

title: 1037

text: February – Pope Sylvester III is deposed (election deemed invalid); Pope Benedict IX is elected once more, becoming the 147th pope.

title: 1045

text: February – Pope Gregory VII holds a council in the Lateran Palace at Rome. He publishes a decree against laymen investiture (an act which will later cause the Investiture Controversy).

title: 1075

text: February – Norman conquest of Sicily: The Normans conquer Noto and complete the 30-year-long conquest of Sicily from the Moorish rulers. Duke Roger Borsa (a son of Robert Guiscard) surrenders his share in the castles of Calabria, and receives his inheritance of Palermo. He grants charters to various towns and encourages urban planning in Apulia and Calabria.

title: 1091

text: February – The Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon set out from Antioch to Latakia. They are joined by forces of Bohemond I and Robert II, count of Flanders. On their arrival, Bohemond decides to turn back to consolidate his power in Antioch. Godfrey and Robert move on to besiege the small sea-port of Jabala. After two weeks, the Emir of Jabala makes a truce, and accepts the suzerainty of the Crusaders.

title: 1099

section: Events › By place › First Crusade

text: February–May – Crusaders under Baldwin I besiege Beirut. Genoese and Pisan ships blockade the harbour; Fatimid ships from Tyre and Sidon try in vain to break the blockade. The Fatimid governor flees by night through the Italian fleet to Cyprus. On May 13, Baldwin captures the city by assault and the Italians carry out a massacre among the inhabitants.

title: 1110

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: February – Domenico Morosini, doge of Venice (House of Morosini), dies after an 8-year reign. He is succeeded by Vitale II Michiel as ruler of Venice.

title: 1156

section: Births

text: February/March – Philip of Swabia, rival of Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1208)

title: 1177

text: February – Raynald of Châtillon has at least five ships freighted over the Isthmus of Suez, which he then uses to pillage the shores of the Red Sea around Jeddah.

title: 1183

section: Events › By area › Asia › Near East

text: February – The Bulgarians attack and loot the fortified town of Rodosto (see Battle of Rodosto), defended by a Venetian garrison. Later, Kaloyan captures many more towns and fortresses.

title: 1206

text: February – A council of Russian princes summons at Kiev; several princes are convinced by Köten Khan to assemble an allied army to drive the Mongols back. During the first half of March, Russian princes return to their principalities and begin to raise forces for the forthcoming campaign. The alliance has a combined force of some 60,000 men, mainly cavalry. Subutai unites his army with Jebe, and sends ambassadors to the Kievan Rus' princes, to tell them to stay out of the conflict as it didn't involve them.

title: 1223

section: Events › Other events, by place › Mongol Empire

text: February – King Ferdinand III (the Saint) announces his intention to resume the Reconquista against the realm of the Almohad Caliphate. Caliph Yusuf II al-Mustansir dies and is succeeded by Abu Muhammad al-Wahid, but in Al-Andalus, two competing pretenders also claim their rights to the throne: Abu Muhammad Ibn al-Mansur al-Adil in Seville and Abu Muhammad abu Abdallah al-Bayyasi in Córdoba. The chronic political instability on the Almohad site allows Ferdinand to begin his campaign victoriously in October, with the capture of Quesada in Spain.

title: 1224

section: Events › January – March

text: February – Charles I of Anjou, king of Sicily, occupies the city of Durrës, and establishes the Angevin Kingdom of Albania. A delegation of Albanian nobles and citizens from Durrës make their way to Charles' court.

title: 1272

text: February – Henry Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey (b. c. 1265)

title: 1332

text: February – Enactments by the Parliament of England:

title: 1351

section: Events › January–December

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: ca. February – Burnt Candlemas: Edward III of England burns down every town and village in Lothian, Scotland.

title: 1356

text: February – Vladislav I of Wallachia liberates Vidin from the Hungarians, resulting in the restoration of Ivan Sratsimir on the throne of Bulgaria, in the autumn.

title: 1369

text: February – Ibn Kathir, Mamluk Islamic scholar (b. 1301)

title: 1373

text: February – In what is now Hanoi in Vietnam, the Emperor Trần Duệ Tông of Đại Việt issues decrees establishing an imperial examination for civil servants.

title: 1374

text: February – Bugaya becomes the new Sultan of Kano in what is now northern Nigeria, upon the death of his brother Yaji I.

title: 1385

text: February – Henry Percy (Hotspur) leads English incursions into Scotland.

title: 1400

text: February – Abu 'Amr 'Uthman, Hafsid caliph of Ifriqiya (d. 1488)

title: 1419

text: February – Christian of Oldenburg, King of Denmark 1448–1481, of Norway 1450–1481 and of Sweden 1457–1464 (d. 1481)

title: 1426

text: February – Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, founder of the Medici dynasty of Florence (b. c. 1360)

title: 1429

text: February – Karl Knutsson Bonde becomes the Rikshövitsman of the Swedish military jointly with Engelbrekt. The two will share the title until Engelbrekt's death two months later.

title: 1436

text: February–June – The Praguerie, an uprising by the French nobility against King Charles VII.

title: 1440

text: February – Alexăndrel seizes the throne of Moldavia, with the support of the boyars.

title: 1449

text: February – Alexăndrel retakes the throne of Moldavia, in his long struggle with Petru Aron.

title: 1452

text: February – Pietro Bembo's Petri Bembi de Aetna Angelum Chalabrilem liber, a description of a journey to Mount Etna, is published in Venice by Aldus Manutius, the first book printed in the old-style serif or humanist typeface cut by Francesco Griffo (known from the 20th century as Bembo) and with early adoption of the semicolon (dated 1495 according to the more veneto).

title: 1496

text: February – Robert Lauder of the Bass, governor of Berwick-on-Tweed (b. c. 1440)

title: 1508

text: February or March – Battle of Antukyah: Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi of the Adal Sultanate defeats the Ethiopian army.

title: 1531

text: February – Nikolaus Federmann, German adventurer in Venezuela and Colombia (b. 1501)

title: 1542

text: January or February – Hendrik Goltzius, Dutch painter (d. 1617)

title: 1558

text: February – Henry Balnaves, Scottish politician and religious reformer (b. 1512)

title: 1570

text: February – The fifth War of Religion against the Huguenots begins in France.

title: 1574

text: February – Adam von Bodenstein, Swiss alchemist and physician (b. 1528)

title: 1577

text: February – John Digby, 1st Earl of Bristol, English diplomat (d. 1653)

title: 1580

text: February – Edmund Calamy the Elder, English Presbyterian (d. 1666)

title: 1600

text: February – Malcolm Macfie, last chief of the Scottish clan Clan Macfie

title: 1623

text: February – Huguenot forces under the Duke of Soubise capture the Island of Ré.

title: 1625

text: February – The Morning Star Rebellion (Morgonstjärneupproret) of peasants breaks out in Sweden's province of Närke, against Queen Christina. It is brutally suppressed by April, and its leader, the self-proclaimed King Olof Mårtensson (who uses a morning star as his scepter) is executed on a breaking wheel on April 6.

title: 1653

text: February – Ralph Davenant, English rector and founder of Davenant Foundation School

title: 1680

text: February–March – Morean War (part of the Great Turkish War): The Ottoman serasker Halil Pasha invades the Mani Peninsula, and forces it to surrender hostages.

title: 1685

text: February – Ahom King Supaatphaa or Gadadhar Singha

title: 1696

text: February – Soldiers at Fort Louis de la Mobile celebrate Mardi Gras in Mobile, starting the tradition for Mobile, Alabama.

title: 1703

text: February – In America, Mardi Gras is celebrated with the Masque de la Mobile in the capital of Louisiana (New France), Mobile, Alabama.

title: 1704

text: February – In America, Mardi Gras is celebrated one more time with Masque de la Mobile in the capital of French Louisiana, Mobile, Alabama, before Mobile is moved 27 miles (43 km) down the Mobile River to Mobile Bay in 1711.

title: 1709

text: February – French settlers at Fort Louis de la Mobile celebrate Mardi Gras in Mobile (Alabama), by parading a large papier-mache ox head on a cart (the first Mardi Gras parade in America).

title: 1711

text: February – Charles Churchill, English poet (d. 1764)

title: 1731

text: February – Thomas Hancorne, Welsh clergyman and theologian (b. 1642)

title: 1731

title: 1732

text: June 30 – War of the Polish Succession: Russian troops take Gdańsk (German: Danzig), which had been besieged since February 1734, after the failure of a French expedition to relieve the city.

title: 1734

text: February – Samuel Hearne, English explorer, fur-trader, author, and naturalist (d. 1792)

title: 1745

text: February – The second part of John Cleland's erotic novel Fanny Hill (Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure) is published in London. The author is released from debtors' prison in March.

title: 1749

text: February – Ferocious wolf attacks occur in France, such as the Beast of Gévaudan or Wolves of Périgord.

title: 1766

text: February – In Manchester, Vermont, the wife of a captain falls ill, probably with tuberculosis. Some locals believe that the cause of her illness is that a demon vampire is sucking her blood. As a cure, Timothy Mead burns the heart of a deceased person in front of a crowd of a few hundred people.

title: 1793

text: February – War of 1812 in North America: General William Henry Harrison sends out an expedition to burn the British vessels at Fort Malden by going across Lake Erie via the Bass Islands in sleighs, but the ice is not hard enough, and the expedition returns.

title: 1813

text: February – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, represents Britain at the Congress of Chatillon.

title: 1814

text: February–March – Revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States are put down by Austrian troops.

title: 1831

text: February – Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist begins publication in serial form in London.

title: 1837

text: February – The Rhodes blood libel is made against the Jews of Rhodes.

title: 1840

text: February – Shaikh Ali bin Khalifa Al-Khalifa captures the fort and town of Riffa after the rival branch of the family fails to gain control of the Riffa Fort and flees to Manama. Shaikh Mohamed bin Ahmed is killed at the battle, called the Battle of Hunayniya.

title: 1843

text: February – John Wisden publishes The Cricketer's Almanack for the year 1864 in England; it will go on to become the major annual cricket reference publication.

title: 1864

text: February – American Civil War: Columbia, South Carolina burns, as Confederate forces flee from advancing Union forces.

title: 1865

text: February – Denis Vrain-Lucas is sentenced to 2 years in prison for multiple forgery, in Paris.

title: 1870

text: February–March – The Harvard Lampoon humor magazine is founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

title: 1876

text: February – The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi is first published complete in book form, in Italy.

title: 1883

text: February – The Tobacco Protest begins in Iran.

title: 1891

text: February – While working as a cook at New York's Sloane Hospital for Women under an assumed name, "Typhoid Mary" (an asymptomatic carrier of typhoid fever) infects 25 people, and is placed in quarantine for life on March 27.

title: 1915

text: February – Werner Heisenberg formulates his famous uncertainty principle, while employed as a lecturer at Niels Bohr's Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen.

title: 1927

text: February – The Ford River Rouge Complex at Dearborn, Michigan, an automobile plant begun in 1917, is completed as the world's largest integrated factory.

title: 1928

text: February – Raymond L. Libby of American Cyanamid's research laboratories, at Stamford, Connecticut, announces a method of orally administering the antibiotic penicillin.

title: 1945

text: January–February — Winter of 1946–47 in the United Kingdom: The worst snowfall in the country in the 20th century causes extensive disruption of travel. Given the low ratio of private vehicle ownership at the time, it is mainly remembered in terms of its effects on the railway network.

title: 1947

text: February – The Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery of the United Nations is formally inaugurated with its first meeting at Lake Success in February 1950.

title: 1950

text: February – The Convention People's Party wins national elections in Gold Coast (British colony).

title: 1951


slug: ferdinand-i-holy-roman-emperor

label: Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor

description: emperador del SIR de 1556 a 1564

date: July 22

text: July 22 – At the First Congress of Vienna, a double wedding takes place to cement agreements. Louis, only son of King Vladislaus II of Hungary, marries Mary of Austria, granddaughter of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor; and Mary's brother, Archduke Ferdinand, marries Vladislaus' daughter, Anna.

title: 1515

section: Events › July–September

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: February 7

text: February 7 – The Pact of Brussels is signed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and his younger brother Archduke Ferdinand, guaranteeing Charles's support of Ferdinand to become the King of the Romans.

title: 1522

section: Events › January–March

date: March 31

text: March 31 – Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, turns over control of the Duchy of Württemberg from the Duke Ulrich to the Emperor's brother, the Archduke Ferdiand of Austria.

title: 1522

section: Conflict & Security

date: August 29

text: August 29 – Battle of Mohács: The Ottoman army of Sultan Suleiman I defeats the Hungarian army of King Louis II, who drowns while retreating with his troops. Two rival groups seek to elect a successor to Louis. Suleiman takes Buda, while Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and John Zápolya, Prince of Transylvania, dispute the succession. As a result of the battle, Ragusa achieves independence, although it acknowledges Ottoman overlordship.

title: 1526

date: October 24

text: October 24 – The Bohemian Diet elects Archduke Ferdinand of the House of Habsburg as the King of Bohemia.

title: 1526

section: Events › October–December

date: February 24

text: February 24 – Ferdinand of the House of Habsburg is formally crowned as King of Bohemia at Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia).

title: 1527

date: January 1

text: January 1 – Croatian nobles elect Austrian monarch Ferdinand I as King of Croatia in the Parliament on Cetin.

title: 1527

date: November 3

text: November 3 – Archduke Ferdinand of Austria is formally crowned as the King of Hungary at the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Székesfehérvár.

title: 1527

date: September 27

text: September 27 – Battle of Tarcal: Ferdinand, future Holy Roman Emperor, defeats John Zápolya and takes over most of Hungary. John appeals to the Ottomans for help.

title: 1527

date: March 20

text: March 20 – The Battle of Szina is fought in the Kingdom of Hungary between the two rival kings, John Zápolya of Eastern Hungary and Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, the Habsburg King of Western Hungary. Zapolya and his 15,000-man army are defeated by mercenaries hired by the Habsburgs.

title: 1528

text: July 22 – Treaty of Constantinople between the Ottoman Empire and the Archduchy of Austria: Ferdinand I, King of the Romans, withdraws his claims to most of Hungary and János Szapolyai, voivode of Transylvania, becomes King of Hungary under the suzerainty of Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1533

section: Religion & Belief

date: June 2

text: June 2 – Pope Paul III announces that he will send three legates to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; to King Ferdinand of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia; and King François of France to prevent an outbreak of war in Europe.

title: 1536

section: Events › April–June

date: May 5

text: May 5 – Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Archduke Ferdinand I, marries Sigismund II Augustus, King of Poland. Her coronation as Queen consort of Poland takes place three days later at Kraków Cathedral as the Archbishop of Gniezno, Piotr Gamrat, places the crown of Hedwig of Kalisz upon her head.

title: 1543

date: November 14

text: November 14 – The Treaty of Prague is signed between King Ferdinand of Bohemia and Maurice, Elector of Saxony with Ferdinand agreeing not to give shelter in Bohemia to John Ferdinand I, the former Elector of Saxony, who is under an Imperial ban.

title: 1546

section: Events › October—December

date: October 22

text: October 22 – Catherine of Habsburg, daughter of Ferdinand, Duke of Habsburg, marries Francesco III Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. Francesco, only 16 years old, dies of pneumonia after only four months of marriage.

title: 1549

date: April 4

text: April 4 – Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, issues an edict to reduce tensions among the three major ethnic groups in the Kingdom of Hungary, with an administration to have equal representation of for ethnic Hungarians, Slovaks and Germans.

title: 1551

date: July 19

text: July 19 – The Treaty of Weissenburg goes into effect as John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary since 1540, abdicates in favor of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria. In addition, the independent Kingdom of Transylvania, ruled by Isabella Jagiellon, is ceded to the Kingdom of Hungary as part of peace with Ferdinand.

title: 1551

date: October 25

text: October 25 – Charles V abdicates as Holy Roman Emperor and is succeeded by his brother Ferdinand.

title: 1555

date: August 27

text: August 27 – Charles V abdicates his position as Holy Roman Emperor in favor of his younger brother, Ferdinand, King of the Romans. The Imperial Diet postpones recognizing the abdication for the next 18 months.

title: 1556

date: May 3

text: May 3 – The Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire gives recognition to Ferdinand as Holy Roman Emperor, two months after his proclamation on March 14 as the successor to his brother Charles V.

title: 1558

date: October 27

text: October 27 – Frederick III is terminated from his post as Duke of Legnica on orders of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor. The Emperor Ferdinand orders Frederick placed under house arrest, and restores Frederick's son, Henry XI as Duke of Legnica.

title: 1559

date: July 25

text: July 25 – Maximilian II becomes the new Holy Roman Emperor upon the death of his father, Ferdinand I. Ferdinand's son Charles succeeds his father as the new Archduke of Austria.

title: 1564


slug: ferdinand-i-of-leon

label: Ferdinand I of León

description: King of Castile, then León and Castile (c.1015-1065) (r. 1035-1037 then 1037-1065)

text: Ferdinand I, king of León and Castile (d. 1065)

title: 1015

section: Deaths

date: October 18

text: October 18 – King Sancho III of Pamplona dies and divides his dominions among his four sons, García Sánchez III, Gonzalo I, Ferdinand I and Ramiro I.

title: 1035

section: Events › By place › Europe

date: September 4

text: September 4 – Battle of Tamarón: Ferdinand I defeats and kills his brother-in-law Bermudo III. Ferdinand becomes the king of Castile and León (modern Spain).

title: 1037

text: King Ferdinand I of León ("the Great") begins his campaign against al-Andalus. He conquers Seia from the Christian allies of the Muslim taifas. In a drive to consolidate his southern border in Portugal he re-populates the city of Zamora with some of his Cantabrian (montañeses) subjects.

title: 1055

text: King Ferdinand I of León ("the Great") takes the cities of Lamego and Viseu (modern Portugal) from Christian lords allied to the Muslim Taifa of Silves.

title: 1057

text: Summer – King Ferdinand I (the Great) conquers more territory in modern-day Portugal and captures Coimbra. He appoints Sisnando Davides to reorganise the economy and administer the lands encircling the city.

title: 1064

date: December 24

text: December 24 – King Ferdinand I of León ("the Great") dies in León, Spain, after an 11-year reign as Emperor of All Spain. His kingdom is divided among his three sons: the eldest Sancho II, the second Alfonso VI and the youngest García II. The kingdoms of Galicia and Portugal become independent under the rule of García.

title: 1065

text: December 24 – Ferdinand I (the Great), king of León and Castile

title: 1065

date: May 1

text: May 1 – After 353 years of being exiled to Lugo due to the Muslim occupation of the city of Braga, the Diocese of Braga is restored by order of Ferdinand I of León under Archbishop Pedro of Braga thanks to the advancing Christian forces during the Reconquista.

title: 1070

section: Events


slug: ferdinand-i-of-naples

label: Ferdinand I of Naples

description: King of Naples 1424-1494

section: Births

text: June 2 – Ferdinand I of Naples (d. 1494)

title: 1423

date: June 14

text: June 14 – Pope Eugene IV and King Alfonso V of Naples reach a forma agreement at Terracina, with the Pope recognizing Alfonso as the rightful King and Prince Ferrante as heir to the throne, while Alfonso agrees to stop support of the antipope Amadeus VII and the Council of Basel.

title: 1443

date: June 27

text: June 27 – Alfonso V of Aragon, King of Aragon in Spain since 1416 and King of Naples in Italy since 1442, dies at his home at the Castel dell'Ovo in Naples. By prior arrangement with his family, Alfonso is succeeded as King of Naples by his son, Fernando, popularly known in Naples as "Ferrante". At the same time, Alfonso's brother Juan, King of Navarre and King of Sicily, becomes the new King of Aragon.

title: 1458

date: August 24

text: August 24 – The Angevins, led by Giovanni Antonio Orsini del Balzo, lift their siege of Barletta in the Kingdom of Naples when Ivan Strez Balšić arrives with cavalry and infantry to rescue King Ferrante. Orsini's erroneous belief that Skanderbeg has accompanied the Neapolitan Army is enough to cause him to order a withdrawal.

title: 1461

section: Culture & Society

date: September 29

text: September 29 – King Ferrante of Naples creates the award Order of the Ermine (L’Ordre de l’Hermine)

title: 1465

date: May 27

text: May 27 – An alliance agreement is signed between Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine, with Charles pledging his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to marry Nicholas. The agreement comes at the same time that King Ferdinand I of Naples had been negotiating the engagement of Mary of Burgundy to Frederick, prince of Naples.

title: 1472

date: October 14

text: October 14 – King Ferdinand of Naples sends his son, Prince Frederick, to Burgundy in hopes of an alliance between the Kingdom of Naples and the Duchy of Burgundy to be secured by Frederick's marriage to Mary of Burgundy, daughter of the Duke, Charles the Bold. The proposal is rejected by Burgundy.

title: 1474

date: September 14

text: September 14 – King Ferrante of Napoli marries Princess Juana, daughter of the Spanish King John II of Aragon and Navarre after being brought to Naples by King Ferrante's son Prince Alfonso, Duke of Calabria.

title: 1477

date: March 17

text: March 17 – Lorenzo the Magnificent, Lord of the Republic of Florence, and King Ferrante of Naples agree to an alliance between the two Italian nations, and to end the ongoing war that had started in 1479. Lorenzo had traveled to Naples in December to reach a treaty to end the war.

title: 1480

date: September 11

text: September 11 – The Conspiracy of the Barons, a revolt by the Neapolitan nobility, begins in the Kingdom of Naples with the rebels taking an oath at the Chiesa di Sant'Antonio Abate in Campania against the rule of King Ferrante, the Spanish prince made King of Naples after the kingdom's conquest by the Crown of Aragon.

title: 1486

date: September 1

text: September 1 – King Ferdinand I of Naples is excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church and declared deposed from office by a bull issued by Pope Innocent VIII. King Ferdinand, who had been punished for refusing to pay dues to the Pope, disregards the papal order and rules over Naples for the rest of his life.

title: 1489

section: Events › September–December


slug: ferdinand-i-of-the-two-sicilies

label: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies

description: King of Naples (1759-1806, 1815-1816), Sicily (1759-1816), and the Two Sicilies (1816-1825)

date: August 15

text: August 15 – The Third Family Compact is executed by King Charles III of Spain and King Louis XV of France, as well as representatives of members of the House of Bourbon, King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Philip, Duke of Parma.

title: 1761

date: November 3

text: November 3 – King Ferdinand IV of the Spanish dominated Kingdom of Naples follows Spain's lead and orders the expulsion of the Jesuits from Naples and has them marched northward to the Neapolitan border with the Papal States.

title: 1767

section: Events › October –December

date: January 21

text: January 21 – The Parthenopean Republic is established in Naples by French General Jean Étienne Championnet; King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies flees.

title: 1799

date: June 13

text: June 13 – Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies is restored to his kingdom following the collapse of the Parthenopean Republic.

title: 1799

date: September 21

text: September 21 – King Ferdinand of Naples signs a treaty in Paris agreeing to keep Naples neutral during the war between France and the allied powers.

title: 1805

date: January 23

text: January 23 – Invasion of Naples: Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies flees to the Kingdom of Sicily under British protection.

title: 1806

date: September 8

text: September 8 – Maria Carolina of Austria, queen of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, and de facto ruler (b. 1752)

title: 1814

section: Deaths › July–December

date: December 12

text: December 12 – The thrones of Sicily and Naples are merged into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, under King Ferdinand I.

title: 1816

date: July 13

text: July 13 – A revolt under Guglielmo Pepe forces Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies to sign a constitution modeled on the Spanish Constitution of 1812.

title: 1820

date: March 21

text: March 21 – Austrian forces under Johann Frimont enter Naples and restore the authority of Ferdinand I.

title: 1821

date: January 4

text: January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies in Naples and is succeeded by his son, Francis.

title: 1825


slug: ferdinand-ii-holy-roman-emperor

label: Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor

description: Holy Roman Emperor

date: July 19

text: July 19 – The day after his 12th birthday, Ferdinand of Habsburg becomes the new Archduke of Inner Austria (Innerösterreich) upon the death, in Graz, of his father Charles II. A regency council rules in the place of Ferdinand until 1596.

title: 1590

date: September 23

text: September 23 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Holy Roman Empress, married to Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1655)

title: 1598

section: Births › July–September

date: September 9

text: September 9 – The siege of Nagykanizsa, an Ottoman fortress in Hungary, is started by Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and lasts for more than two months before being abandoned.

title: 1601

date: July 29

text: July 29 – The secret Oñate treaty is signed in Vienna between representatives of King Philip III of Spain reached an agreement with the junior Habsburg branch of Archduke Ferdinand II of Austria, the heads of two different branches of the House of Habsburg. Spain's Ambassador to Austria, Íñigo Vélez de Guevara, 7th Count of Oñate signs on behalf of King Philip.

title: 1617

date: June 5

text: June 5 – Ferdinand II, Archduke of Inner Austria, is elected King of Bohemia. Ferdinand's forceful Catholic counter-reformation causes great unrest, amongst the Protestants and moderates in Bohemia.

title: 1617

date: July 1

text: July 1 – Ferdinand II, a proponent of the Counter-Reformation, is crowned as King of Hungary at a meeting of the Bohemian diet at Pressburg.

title: 1618

date: August 28

text: August 28 – Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria and King of Bohemia, is elected Holy Roman Emperor unanimously by the prince-electors.

title: 1619

date: April 1

text: April 1 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and former King of Bohemia, sends a two-month ultimatum directing King Frederick of Bohemia (who has usurped the throne in the modern-day Czech Republic) to leave Bohemia by June 1. Frederick refuses to depart his capital at Prague.

title: 1620

date: February 4

text: February 4 – Prince Bethlen Gabor secures a peace treaty with Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.

title: 1620

date: December 31

text: December 31 – Thirty Years' War: The Peace of Nikolsburg is signed between Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Gabor Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania. Bethlen agrees to renounce his claims to Hungary. In return Bethlen receives several counties and lands along the eastern border of the Holy Roman Empire, and Moravia is granted religious freedom.

title: 1621

date: January 29

text: January 29 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares the Elector of the Palatinate, Frederick V, to be a traitor to the Empire.

title: 1621

date: March 25

text: March 25 – In a ceremony, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, renews his oath to restore Catholicism in Germany, Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia.

title: 1624

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Albrecht von Wallenstein is appointed German supreme commander of the armies of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.

title: 1625

date: December 20

text: December 20 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Transylvanian monarch Bethlen Gabor sign the Peace of Pressburg.

title: 1626

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: April 21

text: April 21 – Generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein of the Holy Roman Empire is made Admiral of the Baltic Sea by Emperor Ferdinand II.

title: 1628

date: March 6

text: March 6 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor issues the Edict of Restitution, ordering all Catholic properties lost to Protestantism since 1552 to be restored. The Edict further provides that Catholics and Lutherans (but not Calvinists, Hussites or members of other sects) are to be allowed to practice their faith.

title: 1629

date: August 13

text: August 13 – Thirty Years' War: As a result of heavy pressure from the Prince-electors, Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, dismisses general Albrecht von Wallenstein from command of the Imperial Army.

title: 1630

date: January 24

text: January 24 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, signs a classified order dismissing Albrecht von Wallenstein, the supreme commander of the Imperial Army.

title: 1634

date: June 27

text: June 27 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Holy Roman Empress, married to Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1598)

title: 1655


slug: ferdinand-ii-of-aragon

label: Ferdinand II of Aragon

description: King of Aragon, Sicily, Naples, and Valencia (1452-1516)

date: October 19

text: October 19 – Ferdinand II of Aragon marries Isabella I of Castile in Valladolid, bringing about a dynastic union.

title: 1469

date: October 2

text: October 2 – Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1498)

title: 1470

date: December 12

text: December 12 – Upon the death of Henry IV of Castile, a civil war ensues between his designated successor Isabella I of Castile, and her niece Juana, who is supported by her husband, Afonso V of Portugal. Isabella wins the civil war after a lengthy struggle, when her husband, the newly crowned Ferdinand II of Aragon, comes to her aid.

title: 1474

date: April 3

text: April 3 – While in Valladolid, capital of the Kingdom of Castile and León, to celebrate a tournament in their honor, the joint rulers of Castile, Queen Isabella and King Fernando II are interrupted by a messenger sent by King Afonso V of Portugal. King Afonso announces a declaration of war against the crown of Castile and León.

title: 1475

date: January 15

text: January 15 – At Madrid, Queen Isabella I of Castile, who had been crowned on December 11, declares her husband Prince Fernando de Aragón to be the joint ruler with her, and is proclaimed as King Fernando V of Castile. Fernando, the oldest son and heir to the throne of King Juan II of Aragon, will make Isabella co-ruler of Aragon when he ascends the throne upon his father's death in 1479.

title: 1475

date: June 30

text: June 30 – John, Prince of Asturias, Son of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (d. 1497)

title: 1478

date: January 20

text: January 20 – Fernando II already co-ruler of Crown of Castile with his wife, Isabella I, becomes the King of Aragon upon the death of his father, King Juan II of Aragon and Navarre. He and Isabella rule together over Aragon and Castile, unifying the two kingdoms and controlling most of the Iberian Peninsula. At the same time, King Juan's daughter, Leonor de Trastámara, who had served as regent during times when her father was away fighting in war, becomes Queen of Navarre.

title: 1479

date: November 6

text: November 6 – Joanna of Castile, Queen of Philip the Handsome, daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1555)

title: 1479

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: March 6 – The Treaty of Toledo is signed as Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain recognize the African conquests of Afonso V of Portugal, and he cedes the Canary Islands to Spain.

title: 1480

date: September 27

text: September 27 – The co-rulers of most of Spain, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile initiate the Spanish Inquisition to look for heretics and unconverted Jews, appointing the Dominican Order clerics Miguel de Morillo and Juan de San Martín to serve as the first two inquisitors.

title: 1480

section: Events › July–September

date: June 29

text: June 29 – Maria of Aragon, Queen of Manuel I of Portugal, daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (d. 1517)

title: 1482

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Antonio de Nebrija publishes Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar text for the Castilian Spanish language, in Salamanca, which he introduces to the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, newly restored to power in Andalusia, as "a tool of empire".

title: 1492

section: Events › January—March

date: January 2

text: January 2 – Fall of Granada: Muhammad XI, the last Emir of Granada, surrenders his city to the army of the Catholic Monarchs (Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile) after a lengthy siege, ending the ten-year Granada War and the centuries-long Reconquista, and bringing an end to 780 years of Muslim control in Al-Andalus.

title: 1492

date: January 19

text: January 19 – In the Treaty of Barcelona, King Charles VIII of France returns Cerdagne and Roussillon to King Ferdinand of Aragon.

title: 1493

date: June 28

text: June 28 – Battle of Seminara: The deposed King Ferdinand II of Naples and the reigning Spanish King Ferdinand II of Aragon, with forces commanded by Gonzalo Fernandez, are defeated by a French army commanded by Bernard Stewart, Lord of Aubigny.

title: 1495

date: October 20

text: October 20 – Joanna of Castile, second daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, heiress to Castile, marries the archduke Philip, heir through his mother to the Burgundian Netherlands, and through his father to the Holy Roman Empire.

title: 1496

date: October 4

text: October 4 – John, Prince of Asturias, only son of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile (b. 1478)

title: 1497

date: August 23

text: August 23 – Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, eldest daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (b. 1470)

title: 1498

date: November 11

text: November 11 – Treaty of Granada: Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon agree to divide the Kingdom of Naples between them.

title: 1500

date: February 14

text: February 14 – King Ferdinand V of Castile contracts with Juan de la Cosa to finance an independent expedition to the Pearl Islands and the Gulf of Urabá.

title: 1504

date: January 31

text: January 31 – Treaty of Lyon: France cedes Naples to Ferdinand II of Aragon, who becomes King of Naples as Ferdinand III.

title: 1504

date: September 13

text: September 13 – Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand issue a Royal Warrant for the construction of Capilla Real, a Royal Chapel, to be built in Granada.

title: 1504

date: November 24

text: November 24 – The Treaty of Salamanca is signed by Spain's King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Philip, Duke of Burgundy, agreeing that the two will serve as co-regents for Joanna the Mad, Queen of Castile.

title: 1505

date: July 20

text: July 20 – King Ferdinand II of Aragon returns to Valencia to resume his rule of his Spanish kingdom.

title: 1507

section: Events › July—September

date: June 4

text: June 4 – Having been denied recognition by Pope Julius II as King of Naples, King Ferdinand II of Aragon departs from Naples to return to his home in Spain.

title: 1507

date: December 10

text: December 10 – The League of Cambrai is formed as an alliance against the Republic of Venice, between Pope Julius II, Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Ferdinand II of Aragon.

title: 1508

date: March 22

text: March 22 – Ferdinand II of Aragon appoints Florentine merchant Amerigo Vespucci to the post of Chief Navigator of Spain.

title: 1508

date: July 25

text: July 25 – Spanish troops capture Tripoli at the direction of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and under the command of Pedro Navarro.

title: 1510

text: June 5 – The Sultan Abu Abdallah V of Tlemcen (now part of Algeria) agrees to pay a demand for tribute to the Ferdinand II, King of Aragon (now part of Spain), prompting Ferdinand to plot an invasion of the neighboring kingdom Ifriqiya and its capital, Tripoli.

title: 1510

text: Ferdinand II of Aragon observes that "one black can do the work of four Indians".

title: 1511

section: Events › Date unknown

date: November 17

text: November 17 – The Treaty of Westminster creates an alliance between Henry VIII of England and Ferdinand II of Aragon against France. Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 103; Hutchinson, Young Henry, 159.

title: 1511

date: July 10

text: July 10 – King Ferdinand II of Aragon sends Don Fadrique de Toledo, to complete the Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre.

title: 1512

date: July 12

text: July 12 – The Treaty of Blois is signed in France between representatives of the Spanish Kingdom of Navarre and of the Kingdom of France guaranteeing French intervention to keep Navarre neutral and to prevent an attack by the "Holy League" alliance of Pope Julius II and Spain's King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Castile.

title: 1512

text: December – Louis attempts to make peace with Spain by offering King Ferdinand the hand of his daughter Renée for one of his grandsons along with renouncing his claims on Naples. The proposal is never accepted.

title: 1513

text: January 20 – Spanish conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa writes a letter to King Ferdinand II of Aragon advocating genocide against the native peoples of the Caribbean islands, and begins the killing of hundreds of residents of Caribbean villages.

title: 1513

text: Bartolomé de las Casas urges Ferdinand II of Aragon to end Amerindian slavery, and recommends experimental free towns.

title: 1515

text: January 23 – With the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon, his grandson, Charles of Ghent, becomes King of Spain; his mother Queen Joanna of Castile also succeeds as Queen of Aragon and co-monarch with Carlos, but remains confined at Tordesillas.

title: 1516


slug: ferdinand-iii-of-castile

label: Ferdinand III of Castile

description: 13th-century saint and king of Castile, Leon and Galicia

text: Ferdinand III (the Saint), king of Castile and León (d. 1252)

title: 1199

date: June 6

text: June 6 – The 13-year-old King Henry I of Castile dies from the fall of a roof tile in Palencia, an event which his regent, Álvaro Núñez de Lara, attempts to conceal. He is succeeded by his sister Berengaria, who renounces the throne in favour of her son Ferdinand III, on August 31. The young king begins his reign (supported by his mother as adviser and regent) by a war against his father, King Alfonso IX of León, and the Castilian nobles.

title: 1217

section: Events › Other events by place › Europe

section: Religion & Belief

date: July

text: July – In order to facilitate the movement of Reconquista, Pope Honorius III reverses Innocent III's earlier judgement, and declares King Ferdinand III (the Saint) legitimate heir to the Kingdom of León.

title: 1218

date: February

text: February – King Ferdinand III (the Saint) announces his intention to resume the Reconquista against the realm of the Almohad Caliphate. Caliph Yusuf II al-Mustansir dies and is succeeded by Abu Muhammad al-Wahid, but in Al-Andalus, two competing pretenders also claim their rights to the throne: Abu Muhammad Ibn al-Mansur al-Adil in Seville and Abu Muhammad abu Abdallah al-Bayyasi in Córdoba. The chronic political instability on the Almohad site allows Ferdinand to begin his campaign victoriously in October, with the capture of Quesada in Spain.

title: 1224

section: Events › January – March

date: September 24

text: September 24 – Alfonso IX dies after a 42-year reign and is succeeded by his son Ferdinand III, who receives the Kingdom of León in return for compensation in cash and lands for his half-sisters Sancha and Dulce.

title: 1230

section: Conflict & Security

text: Castillian forces under King Ferdinand III ("the Saint") re-conquer the city of Quesada.

title: 1231

text: Winter – Reconquista: King Ferdinand III of Castile ("the Saint") conquers the cities of Trujillo and Úbeda. The Castilian army besieges the city of Peniscola. Ferdinand forces Ibn Hud, ruler of the Taifa of Zaragoza, to sign a truce.

title: 1233

date: June 29

text: June 29 – Siege of Córdoba: Castilian forces under King Ferdinand III ("the Saint") capture Muslim Córdoba from Emir Ibn Hud as part of the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula.

title: 1236

date: November

text: November – Pope Gregory IX grants the status of Crusade to King Ferdinand III of Castile ("the Saint"), who leads a successful campaign against the Almohads in Murcia.

title: 1239

date: March

text: March – King Ferdinand III (the Saint) turns the independent Taifa of Murcia into a protectorate, and initiates the process of the colonization and Christianization of the region. He receives the submission of the Moors, under the terms of a peace agreement (the famous Treaty of Alcaraz).

title: 1243

date: March 26

text: March 26 – Treaty of Almizra: King James I (the Conqueror) and King Ferdinand III (the Saint) agree on the distribution of Muslim lands yet to be conquered. All lands south of a line, from the cities of Biar to Villajoyosa through Busot, are reserved for the Crown of Castile. This ends further Aragonese expansion on the Iberian Peninsula.

title: 1244

text: Winter – Siege of Jaén: Castilian forces under King Ferdinand III ("the Saint") besiege the Moorish-held city of Jaén. During the siege Moorish knights sally out and manage to capture a Castilian supply caravan. Meanwhile, Ferdinand tries to launch attacks on the various city gates, but all are ineffective.

title: 1245

date: February 28

text: February 28 – Siege of Jaén: Castilian forces, led by King Ferdinand III (the Saint), manage to take the city of Jaén from the Andalucians. In a combined assault with the knights of the Order of Santiago, the city is handed over by Sultan Muhammad I, who accepts Ferdinand's overlordship in exchange for a 20-year truce. The Emirate of Granada becomes a vassal state of the Kingdom of Castile.

title: 1246

text: Summer – Siege of Seville: Castilian forces under King Ferdinand III ("the Saint") begin to besiege Seville, the city is isolated and Ramón de Bonifaz sails with 13 galleys up the Guadalquivir River to scatter some 40 smaller Almohad ships trying to oppose him (with many destroyed).

title: 1247

date: November 23

text: November 23 – Reconquista: Siege of Seville: Castilian forces under King Ferdinand III of Castile ("the Saint") recapture the city of Seville from the Almohads, after a 16-month siege. Prince Alfonso X of Castile takes the city of Alicante.

title: 1248

date: November 28

text: November 28 – Philip of Castile, son of Ferdinand III (b. 1231)

title: 1274