slug: galen

label: Galen

description: 2nd-century Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher

text: Galen, Greek physician, anatomist (d. c. 200/216)

title: AD 129

text: Galen moves back to Rome for good.

title: AD 169

section: Health & Medicine

text: In his Methodus Medendo, Greek physician Galen describes the connection between paralysis and the severing of the spinal cord.

title: AD 180

section: Events › By topic › Arts and sciences

section: Culture & Society

text: Galen publishes his "Treatise on the various temperaments" (a.k.a. On the Elements According to Hippocrates).

title: AD 189

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: A fire destroys Galen's library.

title: AD 192

section: Events › By topic › Arts and Science

text: Galen writes his manual on pathology, The Art of Curing (approximate date).

title: AD 194

section: Events › By topic › Art and Science

text: Galen's major work on medicines, Pharmacologia, is published.

title: AD 197

section: Deaths

text: Galen, Greek physician (see 210) (b. 129)

title: 201

text: Roger Bacon, Franciscan friar and University of Oxford lecturer, is arrested for spreading anti-Church views; specifically, the Church's stance on Greek philosopher Galen.

title: 1277

section: Events › By place › Britain


slug: galerius

label: Galerius

description: Roman emperor (250-311)

section: Births

text: Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, Roman emperor (d. 311)

title: 250

text: Galeria Valeria, Roman empress and wife of Galerius (d. 315)

title: 266

text: Around this time, Constantius marries Maximian's stepdaughter, Theodora, and it may also be around this time that the general Galerius marries Diocletian's daughter Galeria Valeria.

title: 288

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Conflict & Security

text: In this or the following year, Emperor Diocletian campaigns with success against the Sarmatians. The future emperor Galerius may have distinguished himself during this campaign.

title: 289

section: Religion & Belief

date: March 1

text: March 1 – Emperors Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius I and Galerius as Caesars. This is considered the beginning of the Tetrarchy, known as the Quattuor Principes Mundi ("Four Rulers of the World"). (Some sources and scholars date Galerius' elevation to May 21.)

title: 293

text: Caesar Galerius completes a series of two campaigns in Upper Egypt, against the rebel cities of Coptos and Boresis, as well as the Blemmyes and Meroitic Nubians.

title: 295

text: The Persian king Narseh invades Roman-held Upper Mesopotamia and Arsacid western Armenia, the latter territory being under the leadership of the pro-Roman king Tiridates III. With only a small army, Caesar Galerius fights three holding actions against Narseh's army in Mesopotamia. Somewhere in the open plains between Carrhae and Callinicum, Galerius' army suffers a defeat against the Persian army, which is both more numerous and contains superior numbers of high-quality cavalry. Nevertheless, Galerius succeeds in blunting the Persian offensive.

title: 296

text: Diocletian watches over the Syrian provinces while Caesar Galerius makes preparations for a campaign against the Persian king Narseh. He recruits veterans from Illyria and Moesia, recruits new soldiers, and strengthens his army with Gothic mercenaries and the Armenian units of Tiridates III.

title: 297

text: Caesar Galerius restores Tiridates III to the throne of Armenia and invades the Sassanid Empire. His army marches through Adiabene, Atropatene, Susiana and Lower Mesopotamia. He then retakes the strategically important city of Nisibis in Upper Mesopotamia.

title: 298

text: Caesar Galerius begins a major war against the Carpi and Bastarnae and wins the first of several victories.

title: 301

text: Caesar Galerius wins his second victory over the Carpi.

title: 302

text: Caesar Galerius, perhaps accompanied by Emperor Diocletian, wins his fourth and final victory over the Carpi. Many of the surviving Carpi and Bastarnae are resettled in the Roman Empire, where they are split up. The Bastarnae are not attested after this time, and the Carpi are attested only once more in the 310s.

title: 304

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Constantius I and Galerius are declared Augusti; Flavius Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza are appointed Caesars.

title: 305

date: July 25

text: July 25 – Constantius I dies outside Eboracum (modern-day York). Constantine, aged 23 or 24, is declared emperor by his troops. Emperor Galerius grants Constantine the title of Caesar, and elevates Flavius Valerius Severus to emperor in the Western part of the Roman Empire.

title: 306

text: Winter: Emperor Galerius wins his second victory over the Sarmatians.

title: 307

text: Winter: Emperor Galerius wins his third and final victory over the Sarmatians.

title: 308

text: Maximinus Daza, caesar under Emperor Galerius, is acclaimed augustus by his troops. Galerius is forced to recognize him as co-ruler of the East. The Roman Empire is thus divided between seven simultaneous emperors: Galerius (East), Maximinus II (East), Licinius (Middle), Constantine I (West), Maximian (West), Maxentius (Italy), and Domitius Alexander (Africa).

title: 310

date: April 30

text: April 30 – On his deathbed, Emperor Galerius declares religious freedom and issues the Edict of Serdica, ending the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the eastern half of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 311

date: May 5

text: May 5 – Galerius, Roman emperor (b. c.258)

title: AD 311

section: Crime & Justice

text: Licinius conducts a purge of the wider Tetrarchic dynasty. He executes Galerius' son Candidianus, Valerius Severus' son Severianus (whom he accuses of conspiracy), and Maximinus' wife, son and daughter. Diocletian's wife Prisca and daughter Galeria Valeria go into hiding.

title: 313

title: 315

text: Emperor Jovian negotiates a disastrous peace with Persia, surrendering four of the five Roman provinces gained by Caesar Galerius in 298, and the cities Nisibis and Singara (Mesopotamia).

title: 363

text: The mausoleum of Galerius in Salonica (Greece) is converted into a church.

title: 400

section: Events › By topic › Religion


slug: galicia-spain

label: Galicia (Spain)

description: autonomous community of Spain

text: Rechiar succeeds his father Rechila as king of the Suebi in Galicia (Northern Spain). He marries a daughter of the Visigoth king Theodoric I and converts to Catholicism.

title: 448

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: The Berber tribes in the recently conquered region of Galicia (northwest Spain) rebel. This facilitates the establishment of an independent kingdom in the Cantabrian Mountains under King Alfonso I of Asturias.

title: 740

text: Viking raiders ascend the River Garonne as far as the city of Toulouse, and pillage the lands of Septimania. Part of the marauding Vikings invades Galicia (Northern Spain), where some perish in a storm at sea. After being defeated in Corunna, the Scandinavian raiders sack the Umayyad cities of Seville (see below), Niebla, Beja, and Lisbon.

title: 844

text: King Sancho III (the Great) of Pamplona captures León, after defeating a string of rivals. His rule now extends from the borders of Galicia in the west to the County of Barcelona in the east.

title: 1034

date: July 11

text: July 11 – The Romanesque tympanum of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral in Galicia (Spain) is constructed.

title: 1078

text: Portuguese forces under Countess Theresa take two Galician cities, Tui and Ourense. In reply, the sister of Theresa, Queen Urraca ("the Reckless"), attacks Portugal.

title: 1116

text: July 25 – The first large naval battle in the Atlantic Ocean, the Battle of Muros Bay, takes place off of the coast of Galicia in Spain between the French fleet and the Spanish fleet. Although France has the larger force, the Spanish Admiral Álvaro de Bazán identifies the flagship of French Admiral Jean de Clamorgan and sinks the vessel. Spain then captures the remaining 23 other ships and takes 3,000 prisoners, while France loses 3,000 dead and injured.

title: 1543

section: Events › July–September

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Peninsular War – Battle of Corunna in Galicia (Spain): The British (under General Sir John Moore, who is killed) resist an attempt by the French (under Marshal Soult) to prevent them from embarking.

title: 1809

section: Events › January–March

date: November 13

text: November 13 – Prestige oil spill: Greek oil tanker begins spilling oil off the coast of Galicia. It will continue until November 19, spilling 60,000 tonnes of oil in the worst environmental disaster in the history of the Iberian Peninsula.

title: 2002

section: Events › November


slug: galilee

label: Galilee

description: large region mainly located in northern Israel

year_label: 160 BCE

text: In response to the Jewish high priest, Alcimus', request for assistance, the Seleucid general Bacchides leads an army into Judea with the intent of reconquering this now independent kingdom. Bacchides rapidly marches through Judea after carrying out a massacre of the Assideans in Galilee. He quickly makes for Jerusalem, besieging the city and trapping Judas Maccabeus, the spiritual and military leader of the Maccabees, inside. However, Judas and many of his supporters manage to escape the siege.

title: 160 BC

section: Events › By place › Seleucid Empire

year_label: 4 BCE

text: Herod the Great dies, which causes unrest in his client kingdom of Judea. His son, Herod Archelaus, becomes the new ruler. Herod Antipas becomes tetrarch of Galilee and Perea,and the governor of Syria, Publius Quinctilius Varus, marches down to Jerusalem from Antioch to restore order; around 3000 Jews are crucified.

title: 0s BC

section: Events › 4 BC › Roman Empire

year_label: 39 CE

text: Agrippa I, king of Judaea, successfully accuses Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of conspiracy against Caligula. Antipas is exiled and Agrippa receives his territory.

title: 30s

section: Events › 39 AD › Palestine

year_label: 66 CE

text: Gallus leads his main force down the coast from Caesarea via Antipatris to Lydda, detaching other units, by land and sea, to neutralize the rebel strongholds at Joppa, Narbata and the Tower of Aphek. With Galilee and the entire Judean coast in his hands, Gallus assumes his campaign before the winter rains render the roads impassable. He turns inland and marches on Jerusalem, taking the road via the plain at Emmaus. Gallus succeeds in conquering Beit She'arim (the "New City") on the Bezetha Hill.

title: AD 66

year_label: 67 CE

text: Siege of Yodfat: Its 40,000 Jewish inhabitants are massacred. The historian Josephus, leader of the rebels in Galilee, is captured by the Romans. Vespasian is wounded in the foot by an arrow fired from the city wall.

title: AD 67

text: Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian expels the Jews from Judea, and receives a triumphal arch near Scythopolis. The Roman province of Iudaea (plus Galilee) becomes Syria Palaestina (the name Palestine as a designation for this land has been used since at least the 5th century BC (mentioned by Herodotus)).

title: AD 136

text: Constantius Gallus sends his general (magister equitum) Ursicinus to forcefully put down the Jewish revolt in Palestine. The rebels destroy the cities Diopolis and Tiberias, while Diocesarea is razed to the ground. Ursicinus gives the order to kill thousands of Jews, even children. After the revolt, a permanent garrison is stationed in Galilee.

title: 352

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628: The Jews of Jerusalem gain complete control over the city; much of Judea and Galilee becomes an autonomous Jewish province of the Persian Empire. The Jewish Temple is rebuilt by Nehemiah ben Hushiel (exilarch of Jerusalem), who establishes a High Priesthood.

title: 616

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Heraclius issues a decree that all Jews must become Christian; a massacre follows around Jerusalem and in Galilee (Israel), some survivors fleeing to the Daraa area.

title: 630

text: Summer – Seljuk forces under Toghtekin make extensive raids into Galilee. King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, in reprisal, crosses the Jordan River with a Crusader army and ravages the countryside. He occupies and destroys a fortress that Toghtekin has built at Jerash.

title: 1121

section: Events › By place › Levant

date: May 11

text: May 11 – Saladin leads an Egyptian expeditionary force from Cairo to Syria. In June, he arrives in Damascus and learns that his nephew Farrukh Shah has raided Galilee, and sacked the villages near Mount Tabor. On his way back, Farrukh Shah attacks the fortress of Habis Jaldak, carved out of the rock above the River Yarmuk. The garrison, Christian Syrians with no great wish to die for the Crusaders, promptly surrenders.

title: 1182

date: October

text: October – Al-Kamil sends two captive knights as envoys, to renew his former offers of an armistice. If the Crusaders evacuate Egypt, he will return the True Cross (lost in the Battle of Hattin) and they can have Jerusalem, all central Palestine and Galilee. John I advised its acceptance, along with the nobles from England, France and Germany. Pelagius again refuses the peace terms.

title: 1219

section: Events › By place › Fifth Crusade

date: June

text: June – Khwarazmian forces (some 10,000 men) invade Syrian territory, ravaging the land and burning the villages. As Damascus is too strong for a siege, they attack Galilee, past the town of Tiberias – which they capture. The Khwarazmians attack further southward through Nablus towards Jerusalem.

title: 1244

date: September 3

text: September 3 – Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee: The Egyptians defeat the Mongols, marking their first decisive defeat, and the point of maximum expansion of the Mongol Empire. Isa ibn Muhanna is appointed amir al-ʿarab under the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate.

title: 1260

section: Events › By place › Asia

date: October 28

text: October 28 – A Crusader advance guard is ambushed by the Egyptian garrison of Safed, while local Arabs attack the Crusader camp. The 13-year-old Hugh II, ruler of Cyprus, is advised to retire and withdraw with heavy losses. Meanwhile, Baibars campaigns in Galilee and leads a lightning raid to Tripoli.

title: 1266


slug: galileo-galilei

label: Galileo Galilei

description: Italian polymath (1564–1642)

section: Births

date: August 16

text: August 16 – Maria Celeste, Italian nun, daughter of Galileo Galilei (d. 1634)

title: 1600

section: Births › July–September

section: Science & Discovery

date: August 25

text: August 25 – Galileo Galilei demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian officials.

title: 1609

date: January 7

text: January 7 – Galileo Galilei first observes the four Galilean moons of Jupiter: Ganymede, Callisto, Europa and Io, but is unable to distinguish the latter two until the following day.

title: 1610

date: March 13

text: March 13 – Galileo Galilei's treatise on astronomy, Sidereus Nuncius, the first printed scientific record of observations through a telescope, is first published.

title: 1610

date: February 27

text: February 27 – Sunspots are observed by telescope, by Frisian astronomers Johannes Fabricius and David Fabricius. Johannes publishes the results of these observations, in De Maculis in Sole observatis in Wittenberg, later this year. Such early discoveries are overlooked, however, and the first sighting is claimed a few months later, by Galileo Galilei and Christoph Scheiner.

title: 1611

date: December 28

text: December 28 – Galileo Galilei becomes the first astronomer to observe the planet Neptune when in conjunction with Jupiter. He mistakenly catalogues it as a fixed star, because of its extremely slow motion along the ecliptic. Neptune will not be truly recognized as a planet until 1846, about 234 years later, when Johann Gottfried Galle first sights it in the Berlin Observatory.

title: 1612

section: Events › October–December

date: February 26

text: February 26 – Astronomer Galileo Galilei appears before Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino and "warned of the error of the Copernican opinion taught by him", and enjoined by the Catholic Church against any attempt to hold, teach or defend the position of Copernicus that the Sun is stationary rather than revolving around the Earth "in any way whatsoever, verbally or in writing."

title: 1616

section: Events › January–February

date: March 11

text: March 11 – Galileo Galilei meets Pope Paul V in person, to discuss his position as a defender of Copernicus' heliocentrism. The Pope promises Galileo safety from any enemies, and Galileo complies for the next seven years with the injunction against teaching Copernican doctrines.

title: 1616

section: Events › March-April

date: October 20

text: October 20 – Cardinal Antonio Marcello Barberini informs Galileo Galilei that his brother, the newly-enthroned Pope Urban VIII, wishes to receive a visit from Galileo.

title: 1623

section: Deaths

date: January 3

text: January 3 – Michelagnolo Galilei, Italian composer and lutenist, younger brother of Galileo Galilei (b. 1575)

title: 1631

section: Culture & Society

date: February 22

text: February 22 – Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published in Florence.

title: 1632

date: April 12

text: April 12 – Galileo Galilei is convicted of heresy by the Roman Catholic Church.

title: 1633

section: Events › April–June

date: February 13

text: February 13 – Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the Inquisition.

title: 1633

section: Health & Medicine

date: January 20

text: January 20 – Galileo Galilei, having been summoned to Rome on orders of Pope Urban VIII, leaves for Florence for his journey. His carriage is halted at Ponte a Centino at the border of Tuscany, where he is quarantined for 22 days because of an outbreak of the plague.

title: 1633

date: June 22

text: June 22 – the Roman Catholic Church forces Galileo Galilei to recant his heliocentric view of the Solar System. According to legend, he claims Eppur si muove.

title: 1633

date: April 2

text: April 2 – Maria Celeste, Italian nun, daughter of Galileo Galilei (b. 1600)

title: 1634

date: December 8

text: December 8 – Francesco Niccolini obtains an audience with Pope Urban VIII and pleads him to reconsider the Church's punishment of astronomer Galileo Galilei. The Pope replies that although he esteems Galileo highly, nothing will change.

title: 1634

date: April 16

text: April 16 – The works of astronomer Galileo Galilei espousing heliocentrism are removed (with the approval of Pope Benedict XIV) from the Index Librorum Prohibitorum list of books banned by Roman Catholic Church, along with "all books teaching the earth's motion and the sun's immobility". Other works of heliocentrists Galileo, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Diego de Zúñiga and Paolo Foscarini remain on the list.

title: 1757

date: September 11

text: September 11 – The Roman Catholic Church first permits the publication of Galileo Galilei's 1632 treatise, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.)

title: 1822

date: October 31

text: October 31 – Pope John Paul II issues an apology and lifts the 1633 edict of the Inquisition against Galileo Galilei.

title: 1992

section: Events › October


slug: galla-placidia

label: Galla Placidia

description: 4th-century Roman Empress

text: Galla Placidia, Roman Empress and daughter of Theodosius I (d. 450)

title: 392

date: April 27

text: April 27 – Arcadius marries Aelia Eudoxia, daughter of the Frankish general Flavius Bauto (without the knowledge or consent of Rufinus, Praetorian prefect of the East). His seven-year-old half-sister, Galla Placidia, is sent to Rome, where she spends her childhood in the household of Stilicho and his wife Serena.

title: 395

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

section: Conflict & Security

text: Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius I, is captured by the Visigoths and becomes a hostage during their move from the Italian Peninsula to Gaul.

title: 410

date: January 1

text: January 1 – Galla Placidia, half-sister of emperor Honorius, is married to the Visigothic king Ataulf at Narbonne. The wedding is celebrated with Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty.

title: 414

text: The Visigoths invade the Iberian Peninsula and begin to conquer territory taken previously by the Vandals. King Athaulf and his pregnant wife Galla Placidia leave Gallia Narbonensis; they relocate at Barcelona. Their infant son, Theodosius, dies in infancy, eliminating an opportunity for a Roman-Visigothic line. Athaulf is assassinated in the palace while taking a bath. Sigeric succeeds him, but after a reign of seven days he is also murdered.

title: 415

text: January 1 – Emperor Honorius forces his half-sister Galla Placidia into marriage to Constantius, his general (magister militum). He is appointed patricius and becomes a prominent member of the House of Theodosius.

title: 417

date: September 2

text: September 2 – Constantius III dies suddenly of an illness; his wife Galla Placidia becomes, for the second time, a widow.

title: 421

text: Early spring – Roman empress Galla Placidia departs with her children Grata Honoria and Valentinian to the court of Constantinople.

title: 423

section: Religion & Belief

date: October 23

text: October 23 – Valentinian III, six-year-old son of Galla Placidia, is installed as emperor (Augustus) of the Western Roman Empire. Real power is in the hands of his mother who becomes a regent.

title: 425

section: Crime & Justice

text: Bonifacius, Roman governor (Last of the Romans), revolts in Africa against Emperor Valentinian III. Under the influence of Aetius, he is convicted of treason by empress-mother Galla Placidia.

title: 427

text: Bonifacius, weakened by the civil war against empress Galla Placidia, sues for peace and is elevated to the rank of supreme commander (magister militum) of Africa.

title: 429

text: Sebastianus, son-in-law of Bonifacius, becomes supreme commander (magister militum) of the Western Roman army. Empress Galla Placidia gives him considerable influence over imperial policy.

title: 432

date: July 2

text: July 2 – Valentinian III, age 18, rules as emperor over the Western Roman Empire. His mother Galla Placidia ends her regency, but continues to exercise political influence until her death in 450.

title: 437

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Bishop Germanus of Auxerre visits Ravenna, seeking to soften imperial hostility towards the Bagaudae. On his arrival at the capital, empress-mother Galla Placidia sends him a silver dish with a choice selection of prepared dainties—all vegetarian, out of respect for the bishop's strict diet. Germanus petitions the Senate for leniency for the citizens of Armorica (Brittany).

title: 446

date: November 27

text: November 27 – Galla Placidia, Roman Empress (b. 392)

title: 450


slug: gallia-narbonensis

label: Gallia Narbonensis

description: Roman Empire province from 121 BC until 5th century

year_label: 225 BCE

text: A coalition of Cisalpine Gallic tribes (Taurini, Taurisces, Insubres, Lingones, Salasses, Agones, and Boii), reinforced by large numbers of Transalpine adventurers called Gaesatae (Gaesati), invade Italy. Avoiding the Romans at Ariminum, the Gauls cross the Apennines into Etruria and plunder the country.

title: 225 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 77 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Pompeius marches along the Via Domitia through Gallia Narbonensis crossing the Pyrenees to Spain. He joins with Quintus Metellus Pius to suppress the revolt of Quintus Sertorius, but is at first unsuccessful.

title: 77 BC

year_label: 58 BCE

text: Winter – Caesar leaves his legions in winter quarters among the Sequani (located in modern-day Burgundy) far to the north of the formal boundary of Gallia Transalpina. He returns to Gallia Cisalpina, carrying out judicial and administrative activities.

title: 58 BC

year_label: 53 BCE

text: Winter – Caesar enrolls non-citizen soldiers in Gallia Transalpina, genesis of Legio V Alaudae. He increases his army to ten legions.

title: 53 BC

year_label: 16 BCE

text: Construction of the Roman temple of Maison Carrée at Nîmes in Gallia Narbonensis (approximate date).

title: 16 BC

year_label: 40 CE

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Construction begins on the Pont du Gard aqueduct in Gallia Narbonensis (approximate date).

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 40

year_label: 70 CE

text: Pliny the Elder serves as procurator in Gallia Narbonensis.

title: AD 70

title: 415


slug: gallienus

label: Gallienus

description: Roman emperor (218-268)

section: Births

text: Gallienus, Roman emperor (d. 268)

title: 218

text: Aemilianus is murdered at Spoletium and Publius Valerianus, age 60, is recognised as the new emperor by the Rhine legions. He gives his son Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus the title Augustus. Valerianus I dispatches him to the Danube where the Goths have violated the treaty signed with Rome and invaded Moesia.

title: 253

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Emperor Gallienus brings some order to the Danube area.

title: 257

text: Valerian II, eldest son of Gallienus, dies, possibly murdered by Pannonia's governor Ingenuus; Emperor Valerian bestows on another one of Gallienus's sons, Saloninus, the title of Caesar.

title: 258

text: Valerian II, son of co-emperor Gallienus

title: 258

text: Battle of Mediolanum: A Germanic confederation, the Alamanni (300,000 warriors), who crossed the Alps, are defeated by Roman legions under Gallienus, near Mediolanum (modern Milan).

title: 259

text: Gallienus becomes the sole emperor of Rome; during his reign the Pannonian governor Ingenuus revolts on the Danube.

title: 260

text: Saloninus, Roman emperor and son of Gallienus (b.242)

title: 260

text: Emperor Gallienus crushes the Alemanni at Milan (approximate date).

title: 261

text: King Odenathus of Palmyra declares himself ruler of the area west of the River Euphrates and is declared Dux Orientalis by the Roman emperor Gallienus.

title: 263

text: Emperor Gallienus tries twice to crush the usurper Postumus, but on the first occasion Aureolus, commander of the elite cavalry, carelessly lets him escape. The second time, Gallienus sustains an arrow wound and has to break off his siege of a Gallic town where Postumus has holed up. He makes no other serious attempt to overcome his rival, instead devoting his attention to the political and military problems in the Danube and eastern parts of the Roman Empire.

title: 265

text: The Goths sack several cities of southern Greece including Athens, Corinth, Argos and Sparta. After the Sack of Athens, an Athenian militia force (2,000 men), under the historian Dexippus, pushes the invaders to the north where they are intercepted by the Roman army under emperor Gallienus. He wins an important victory near the Nestos River, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace.

title: 267

text: Gallienus, Roman emperor (b. 218)

title: 268

date: September

text: September – Battle of Naissus: Emperor Gallienus, aided by Aurelian, defeats a Gothic coalition (50,000 warriors) near Naissus (Niš, modern Serbia).

title: 268


slug: gallipoli

label: Gallipoli

description: peninsula in northwestern Turkey

year_label: 447 BCE

text: Pericles leads Athenian forces in the expulsion of barbarians from the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli, in order to establish Athenian colonists in the region. Thus Pericles starts a policy of cleruchy (klerouchos) or "out-settlements". This is a form of colonisation where poor and unemployed people are assisted to emigrate to new regions.

title: 447 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 309 BCE

text: Lysimachus, the Macedonian ruler of Thrace and one of diadochi, founds the city of Lysimachia on the north-western extremity of the Thracian Chersonese (the modern Gallipoli peninsula) to serve as his capital.

title: 309 BC

section: Events › By place › Thrace

year_label: 190 BCE

text: For assisting the Romans in defeating Antiochus III, Eumenes II of Pergamum is rewarded with a great increase in territory. He is given control over the Thracian Chersonese (the modern Gallipoli peninsula) and over most of the former Seleucid possessions in Anatolia.

title: 190 BC

section: Events › By place › Seleucid Empire

date: March 10

text: March 10 – King Amalric I of Jerusalem departs with a large staff for Constantinople. At Callipolis he is met by his father-in-law, John Doukas Komnenos, military governor (doux) of Cyprus. Amalric enters the Byzantine capital and is welcomed by Manuel I. In June, a treaty is signed, Amalric recognizes Manuel's suzerainty over Jerusalem.

title: 1171

section: Events › By place › Levant

date: March

text: March – Frederick I leaves Adrianople to Gallipoli at the Dardanelles to embark, with the help of Byzantine transports, to cross into Asia Minor. On April 25, he enters territory of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum under the rule of Sultan Kilij Arslan II. Although promised to let the German Crusaders pass peaceably through his domains, Kilij Arslan harasses Frederick's forces with hit-and-run attacks. On May 7, a Turkish army (some 10,000 men) is defeated at the Battle of Philomelion, by 2,000 Crusaders.

title: 1190

section: Events › By place › Third Crusade

date: December

text: December – Roger de Flor, Italian nobleman and adventurer, settles with the Catalan Company in Gallipoli and other towns in the southern part of Thrace and visits Constantinople to demand payment for his forces. He lives at the expense of the local population and uses the city as a base for his marauding raids in the surrounding area.

title: 1304

section: Events › October – December

text: Süleyman Pasha (son of Orhan) is probably granted control of Çimpe Castle on the Gallipoli peninsula by Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos, the first territory west of the Bosporus held by the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1352

section: Events › Date unknown

section: Climate & Environment

date: March 2

text: March 2 – During the night between 1 and 2 March, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses, along with destroying the neighboring villages and towns in the area.

title: 1354

section: Events › January–December

date: April 25

text: April 25 – WWI: Start of the Gallipoli Campaign by land forces (lasting until January 1916) – A landing at Anzac Cove is conducted by Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, and a landing at Cape Helles by British and French troops, to begin the Allied invasion of the Gallipoli peninsula in the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1915

section: Events › April

date: January 9

text: January 9 – WWI: Gallipoli Campaign – The last British troops are evacuated from Gallipoli, as the Ottoman Empire prevails over a joint British and French operation to capture Constantinople.

title: 1916

section: Events › January


slug: gansu

label: Gansu

description: province of China

year_label: 174 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Xiongnu attack the Yuezhi, and force them away from Gansu.

title: 174 BC

section: Events › By place › Mongolia

text: The Xiongnu occupy the Gansu area, an economically important province situated along the Silk Road.

title: 397

section: Events › By place › China

text: Tuyuhun invasion of Gansu: Tang forces under Chai Shao defeat the Tuyuhun, and prevent further incursions into Gansu (China).

title: 623

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: Spring – Mongol forces under Uriyangkhadai conduct a campaign against local Yi and Lolo tribes in Vietnam. He returns to Gansu and sends messengers to the court of Möngke Khan informing him that Yunnan is firmly under Mongolian control. Möngke Khan honors and rewards Uriyangkhadai for his military achievements.

title: 1257

section: Events › By place › Mongol Empire

date: January 19

text: January 19 – In Ming dynasty China, General Lan Yu is rewarded by the Emperor Zhu Chongba of the Hongwu era for his victory over Mongol invaders in 1388. Lan Yu is given the title Duke of Liang, with rule over what is now the Gansu province.

title: 1389

section: Events › January–March

text: March or April – 1490 Qingyang event, a presumed meteor shower or air burst over Qingyang in the Gansu province in Ming dynasty China. Some later accounts lists casualties of more than 10,000 people. The only date given for the Qingyang event is that it was in "the third lunar month" on the Chinese lunar calendar coinciding with a period beginning on March 12 and ending on April 19, 1490.

title: 1490

date: July 1

text: July 1 – An 8.0 earthquake shakes southern Gansu, killing 22,000 people.

title: 1879

section: Events › July

date: December 16

text: December 16 – An 8.2 Richter scale Haiyuan earthquake causes a landslide in Gansu Province, China, killing 273,000.

title: 1920

section: Events › December

date: May 22

text: May 22 – The 7.6 Gulang earthquake affects Gansu in northwest China with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), leaving over 40,000 dead.

title: 1927

section: Events › May

date: December 25

text: December 25 – The 7.6 Changma earthquake shakes the Gansu Province in China with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). Two-hundred and seventy-five people are killed.

title: 1932


slug: gascony

label: Gascony

description: former French territory

date: April 8

text: April 8 – King Charibert II is assassinated at Blaye (Gironde), (possibly on orders of his half-brother Dagobert I), along with his infant son. Dagobert I claims Aquitaine and Gascony, becoming the most powerful Merovingian king in the West.

title: 632

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Religion & Belief

text: Summer – Charles Martel restores the authority of the Austrasian palace throughout the Frankish Kingdom, including against Frankish-claimed Aquitaine and Provence (Southern France). He exiles Rigobert, bishop of Reims, to Gascony.

title: 721

text: King Charlemagne (Charles "the Great") begins a military campaign against the Duchy of Aquitaine and the Duchy of Gascony. He leads a Frankish army to the city of Bordeaux, where he sets up a fort at Fronsac. His younger brother Carloman I refuses to help his brother fight the rebels, and returns to Burgundy. Hunald, duke of Aquitaine, is forced to flee to the court of Gascony. Lupus II, fearing Charlemagne, turns Hunald over in exchange for peace, and is put in a monastery. Aquitaine and Gascony are subdued into the Frankish Kingdom.

title: 769

text: Winter – The Basques, supported by the Moors, cross the Garonne River and revolt against the Franks in Gascony (north of the Pyrenees).

title: 816

text: Third Civil War: King Louis the German, grandson of Charlemagne, invades Swabia. His nephew, Pepin II of Aquitaine, and his Gascon subjects, conquer territory all the way to the Loire.

title: 839

section: Deaths

text: Sancho II, count of Gascony (approximate date)

title: 864

date: May

text: May – English governor Simon de Montfort suppresses a revolt in Gascony.

title: 1251

date: August 6

text: August 6 – King Henry III leads an expedition to Gascony, to repel a rumoured invasion from Castile. Meanwhile, Simon de Montfort returns from Gascony where he allies himself with the barons who oppose Henry.

title: 1253

section: Events › By place › England

date: November 16

text: November 16 – King Henry III of England dies at the Palace of Westminster after a 56-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Edward I, who slowly returns from the Holy Land via Gascony.

title: 1272

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: May 20

text: May 20 – Treaty of Paris: King Philip the Fair of France signs a peace treaty with Edward Longshanks, King of England. According to the terms of the treaty, Gascony is restored to England – as well as the cities of Bordeaux and Bayonne. In return, Edward swears allegiance to Philip as his vassal and agrees that Philipp's daughter, Isabella of France, be married to his son Edward of Caernarfon, until she is old enough.

title: 1303

section: Events › April–June

date: May 1

text: May 1 – The 1314–1316 papal conclave to elect a successor to Pope Clement V begins at Carpentras Cathedral in Provence with 23 cardinals in attendance, of whom the votes of 16 are necessary to elect a new Pontiff. The cardinals are divided into three factions, none of which have more than eight people, with a group from Italy (led by Guillaume de Mandagot), who want to move the papacy back to Rome; nine from Gascony, most of whom are relatives of Pope Clement (led by Arnaud de Pellegrue); and five from Provence (led by Berengar Fredol).

title: 1314

section: Events › April – June

date: May 24

text: May 24 – Philip VI of France confiscates Gascony from English control.

title: 1337

date: August

text: August – Gascon campaign of 1345 - Battle of Bergerac, Gascony: English troops are victorious over the French.

title: 1345

section: Events

date: October 21

text: October 21 – Battle of Auberoche in Gascony: The English defeat the French.

title: 1345

section: Health & Medicine

text: By June 24 – The Black Death pandemic reaches England, having probably been brought across the English Channel by fleas on rats aboard a ship from Gascony to the south coast port of Melcombe (modern-day Weymouth, Dorset); by November it will have reached London and by 1350 will have killed one third to a half of its population.

title: 1348

date: October 5

text: October 5–December 2 – Hundred Years' War: Black Prince's chevauchée of 1355 – A large mounted Anglo-Gascon force under the command of Edward the Black Prince marches from Bordeaux in English-held Gascony 300 miles (480 km) south to Narbonne and back, devastating a wide swathe of French territory.

title: 1355

date: October 24

text: October 24 – The Treaty of Brétigny is ratified at Calais, marking the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War. Under its terms, Edward III of England gives up his claim to the French throne, and releases King John II of France in return for French land, including Calais and Gascony.

title: 1360

date: May 18

text: May 18 – The Treaty of Bourges is signed between King Henry IV of England and Charles, Duke of Orléans, as the Armagnacs offer England full sovereignty over Aquitaine and Gascony in return for 4,000 troops and military aid against the Burgundians and John the Fearless.

title: 1412

date: August 31

text: August 31 – In France, the Siege of Tartas is commenced in Gascony by troops of the Kingdom of England and the English-controlled Duchy of Gascony in an attempt to oust a French supporter of King Charles VII, Charles II d'Albret, who has taken control of Tartas. The siege lasts for almost two years before being abandoned by the English.

title: 1440

section: Events › July–September

date: January 20

text: January 20 – The siege of Tartas in France is temporarily halted when Charles II of Albret, against whom residents of Gascony are campaigning, and the commander of the English forces, Sir Thomas Rempston, agree to a three-month truce.

title: 1441

text: October 23 – The Earl of Shrewsbury and his army capture Bordeaux, capital of Gascony, after having taken back most of the province without resistance.

title: 1452

section: Events › October–December


slug: gaul

label: Gaul

description: historical region of Western Europe inhabited by Celtic tribes

year_label: 358 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The Romans defeat the Volsci, annex most of their territory, and settle it with Roman colonists. The Romans also force the Latin League to renew its close alliance with Rome, an alliance which was weakened by Rome’s defeat at the hands of the Gauls in 390 BC.

title: 358 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 351 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: First use of the heavy throwing spear, the pilum, (according to Livy) in battle against the Gauls.

title: 351 BC

year_label: 331 BCE

text: The Gallic tribe of the Senones and the Romans conclude a peace and enter upon a period of friendly relations which lasts the rest of the century.

title: 331 BC

year_label: 284 BCE

text: The Gallic tribe called the Senones, who have settled on the Adriatic coast north of Picenum, attack Arretium in Etruria. While attempting to relieve this allied city, the Romans under the command of Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter suffer a costly defeat in the Battle of Arretium. Aroused by this disaster, a Roman army under Manius Curius Dentatus invades the Senones' territory, defeating them and driving them out of the Italian peninsula.

title: 284 BC

year_label: 278 BCE

text: After their defeats in Greece, the Gauls move into Asia Minor. The Seleucid king Antiochus wins a major battle over the Gauls leading to his being given the title of Soter (Greek for "saviour"). The Gauls settle down to become the "Galatians" and are paid 2,000 talents annually by the Seleucid kings to keep the peace.

title: 278 BC

section: Events › By place › Seleucid Empire

year_label: 222 BCE

text: Viridomarus, military leader of the Gaesatae (Gaul)

title: 222 BC

year_label: 199 BCE

text: The Roman general Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus attacks the Insubres in Gaul, but loses over 6,700 soldiers in the process.

title: 199 BC

year_label: 150 BCE

text: The Romans, led by praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba, defeat the Lusitanians in a major battle in Hispania. He then breaks his promise to the defeated Lusitanian rebels by instituting a massacre of 9,000 of their number during the peace talks. Later 20,000 more Lusitanians are sold as slaves in Gaul.

title: 150 BC

section: Events › By place › Hispania

year_label: 113 BCE

text: Germanic tribes attack Gaul and northern Iberia.

title: 113 BC

year_label: 103 BCE

text: Gaius Marius prepares a campaign against the Ambrones and Teutones (under king Teutobod) who are settled in Gaul.

title: 103 BC

year_label: 100 BCE

section: Births

text: Titus Labienus, Caesar's chief lieutenant in the conquest of Gaul (d. 45 BC)

title: 100 BC

year_label: 72 BCE

text: The Suebi and other tribes under King Ariovistus invade Gaul.

title: 72 BC

text: Spartacus moves north again, to cross the Alps into Gaul and then to Thracia. Outside Mutina on the plain of the River Po he defeats the Roman forces under Gaius Cassius Longinus, governor of Gallia Cisalpina.

title: 72 BC

text: Julius Caesar becomes a provincial governor (proconsul) and leads a Roman army (6 Roman legions; Legio VII, Legio VIII, Legio IX, Legio X, and newly levied Legio XI and Legio XII) into Gaul. He deploys auxiliaries as part of this army, including Balearic slingers, Numidian and Cretan archers, and Celtic/Gallic cavalry (such as the allied Aedui).

title: 58 BC

year_label: 57 BCE

text: Spring – Julius Caesar raises a further two legions (Legio XIII and Legio XIV), bringing his army in Gaul to eight legions (at which strength it remains until 54 BC).

title: 57 BC

year_label: 56 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

text: This year, or possibly the following year, the king of the Trinovantes called Imanuentius, is overthrown and killed by his rival Cassivellaunus. His son Mandubracius flees to Gaul and appeals to Julius Caesar for help.

title: 56 BC

section: Events › By place › Britain

year_label: 55 BCE

date: August 22

text: August 22 or August 26 – Julius Caesar commands his first invasions of Britain, likely a reconnaissance-in-force expedition, in response to the Britons giving military aid to his Gallic enemies. Caesar retreats back to Gaul when the majority of his force is prevented from landing by storms.

title: 55 BC

year_label: 54 BCE

text: Winter – Ambiorix revolts in Gaul.

title: 54 BC

text: Julius Caesar suppresses a revolt led by Ambiorix near Sabis (Northern Gaul).

title: 53 BC

year_label: 52 BCE

text: Winter – Julius Caesar crosses Mons Cevenna (central Gaul) and sends his army through the passes covered with snowdrifts to take the rebellious Arverni by surprise.

title: 52 BC

date: September

text: September – Battle of Alesia: Julius Caesar defeats the Gallic allies coming to aid Vercingetorix, led by his cousin Vercassivellanus. Vercingetorix surrenders on October 3, signalling the Roman conquest of Gaul. The final pacification of Gaul is completed the following year.

title: 52 BC

year_label: 47 BCE

date: October

text: October – Caesar's invasion of Africa, against Metellus Scipio and Labienus, Caesar's former lieutenant in Gaul.

title: 47 BC

year_label: 46 BCE

text: Julius Caesar establishes Julia Paterna Arelate as a colony in Gaul for veterans of the Sixth Legion, at the present day site of Arles.

title: 46 BC

year_label: 32 BCE

date: July

text: July – The Roman Senate declares war upon Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. Octavian Caesar is proclaimed dux and the West - Gallic and Spanish provinces, Africa, Sicily and Sardinia - swear an oath (sacramentum) of loyalty to him. In order to assure this oath, Octavian forces the high priest of the Vestal Virgins in Rome to hand over Antony's will, which contains information about the Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms and plans to build a tomb in Alexandria for him and Cleopatra.

title: 32 BC

year_label: 13 BCE

text: Drusus is granted governor of Gaul and mobilises a Roman army to beat the Germans back across the Rhine. He travels to the North Sea and pays tribute to the Frisii.

title: 13 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

year_label: 6 CE

text: AD 6 – Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea, is deposed and banished to Vienne in Gaul.

title: 0s

section: Events › Roman Empire

year_label: 47 CE

text: Cauci pirates led by the Roman deserter Gannascus ravage the Gallic coast; Corbulo uses the Rhine fleet against them. The Frisian revolt is suppressed.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 47

year_label: 69 CE

text: Marcus Trebellius Maximus, governor of Britannia, is forced to flee to Gaul after a mutiny of Legio XX Valeria Victrix at Deva Victrix (Chester).

title: AD 69

year_label: 87 CE

text: Lyon, a city in Gaul, has a population of over 100,000 citizens (approximate date).

title: AD 87

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: The churches in southern Gaul are destroyed after a crowd accuses the local Christians of practicing cannibalism.

title: AD 177

text: Peasants in Gaul stage an anti-tax uprising under Maternus.

title: AD 186

text: Clodius Albinus, who had been proclaimed emperor in Britain, crosses into Gaul with his legions, while at the same time recruiting new soldiers. He is soon the head of an army of 150,000 men, according to Cassius Dio. Severus, still in Mesopotamia, hastily returns to Rome.

title: AD 195

text: In order to assure the support of the Roman legion in Germany on his march to Rome, Clodius Albinus is declared Augustus by his army while crossing Gaul.

title: AD 196

text: Emperor Caracalla leaves Rome and expels some Germanic marauders from Gaul, while his mother, Julia Domna, rules the Empire. He defends the northern Rhine frontier against the Alamanni and the Chatti. Caracalla wins over the Germanic tribes on the banks of the River Main, and gives himself the title "Germanicus". It is probably while campaigning in Germania that he takes a liking to the caracalla, a Celtic or Germanic tunic from which he acquires the name by which he is known.

title: 213

text: Fabian sends seven missionaries to Gaul to evangelize in the large cities.

title: 236

text: Postumus revolts against Gallienus in Gaul. The western provinces of Britain and Spain join his independent realm—which is called in modern times the Gallic Empire.

title: 259

text: Saloninus, son of Gallienus, is proclaimed Augustus by his troops. Postumus besieges Cologne, where Silvanus is praetorian prefect and Roman ruler of Gaul.

title: 260

text: Postumus makes no move to march on Rome and claim his territory south of Gaul.

title: 265

text: Aureolus, charged with defending Italy, defeats Victorinus (co-emperor of Gaul), is proclaimed emperor by his troops, and begins his march on Rome.

title: 267

text: Victorinus is declared emperor of the Gallic Empire by the legions at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), following the murders of his predecessors. He is recognized by the provinces of Gaul and Britain, but Hispania might have reunited with the Roman Empire.

title: 268

text: Marcus Aurelius Marius, Roman emperor (Gaul)

title: 268

text: Battle of Châlons: The Emperor Aurelian invades Gaul to campaign against the Gallic Empire (Gaul and Britain). In the Catalaunian Plains, the Romano-Gallic Emperor Tetricus I surrenders to Aurelian and leaves his army without an emperor. The Gallic army is then crushed by Aurelian in a major battle. With the conquests of the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire, the Roman Empire is united again. However, the heavy losses incurred by the Gallic forces compromises the Rhine frontier.

title: 274

text: Emperor Aurelian puts down unrest in Gaul, and defeats Germanic incursions into Gaul and Raetia (these problems had been caused by Aurelian's defeat and overthrow of the Gallic Empire).

title: 275

text: Florianus becomes Roman Emperor with the support of the Senate, but a general in the east, Marcus Aurelius Probus, usurps power against him. Florianus breaks off his campaign against the Goths and marches east from the Bosporus with support from the Roman legions in Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy.

title: 276

text: Emperor Probus defeats the Alamanni, advancing through the Neckar Valley. He expels the Franks from Gaul, and reorganizes the Roman defenses on the Rhine.

title: 278

text: Emperor Probus drives the Alans off to Asia Minor and suppresses the revolt in Gaul; Proculus is executed.

title: 280

text: Maximian is sent to pacify Gaul, where the Bagaudae, a band of peasants, are revolting against the Roman Empire.

title: 285

text: Around this time, an army loyal to Maximian, probably led by the future emperor Constantius, defeats the usurper Carausius or his Frankish allies in northern Gaul. In this or the following year, Carausius withdraws his military forces and administrative presence from Gaul, confining himself to Roman Britain.

title: 288

text: The Alemanni, having been expelled from part of their territory by the Burgundians, seek to regain their lost lands. These peoples had unsuccessfully invaded Gaul in tandem in 285/6, and the Alemanni had likely been weakened by the Roman counter-invasions of 287 and 288.

title: 291

text: Constantius retakes some of the Gallic territories from the usurper Carausius. He conquers the crucial port of Bononia (modern Boulogne).

title: 293

text: An invasion of Gaul by the Alemannic Lingones almost traps Caesar Constantius I between the enemy and the walls of a town. Constantius himself is carried onto the wall via a crane. However, within the same day, Constantius sallies forth from the walls and defeats the enemy in a major battle.

title: 302

text: Summer – Constantine joins his father at Bononia (Boulogne) in Gaul; they cross the Channel to Britain and make their way to Eboracum (York), capital of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. They campaign with success against the Picts.

title: 305

text: Summer: Anticipating an offensive by Galerius, Maximian travels to Gaul to make an alliance with Constantine I.

title: 307

text: Emperor Constantius II invades northern Italy in pursuit of the usurper Magnus Magnentius, who withdraws with his army to Gaul. He declares an amnesty for Magnentius' soldiers, many of whom desert to him.

title: 352

text: Battle of Mons Seleucus: Emperor Constantius II defeats the usurper Magnentius, who commits suicide in Gaul in order to avoid capture. Constantius becomes sole emperor, and reunifies the Roman Empire.

title: 353

text: As a result of the armies of the West having been largely withdrawn by the usurper Magnus Magnentius, to fight Constantius II, hordes of barbarians (Franks and Alemanni) cross the upper Rhine into Gaul and invade the lands of the Helvetians.

title: 354

text: Battle of Reims: Julian is defeated by the Alemanni at Reims (Gaul).

title: 356

text: Summer – Battle of Strasbourg: Julian, Caesar (deputy emperor) and supreme commander of the Roman army in Gaul, wins an important victory against the Alemanni at Strasbourg (Argentoratum), driving the barbarians back behind the Rhine.

title: 357

text: The Salian Franks capitulate to Julian the Apostate in Gaul. He allows them to form a Roman foederati in Toxandria. Frankish settlers are established in areas in the north and the east to help with the defense of the Rhine frontier.

title: 358

text: November 1 – The Alamanni cross the Rhine and invade Gaul. Emperor Valentinian I moves to Paris to command the army and defend the Gallic cities.

title: AD 365

text: Winter – Emperor Valentinian I appoints Jovinus, his Master of the Horse (Magister Equitum), general of the army. He defeats the Alamanni in three successive battles, and pushes them out of Gaul.

title: 366

text: Battle of Solicinium: Emperor Valentinian I launches a punitive expedition against the Alamanni, due to the crises in Britannia and Gaul. The Alamanni re-cross the Rhine and plunder Moguntiacum (modern Mainz).

title: 367

text: Saint Martin of Tours undertakes the Christianization of Gaul.

title: 373

text: The Gallic city of Cularo is renamed Gratianopolis (later Grenoble), in honor of Gratian having created a bishopric.

title: 381

text: Roman troops in Britannia proclaim Magnus Maximus as their Emperor. He crosses over to the continent and makes Trier his capital. Gaul, the Italian provinces and Hispania proclaim loyalty to him.

title: AD 383

text: The Gallaeci or Gallic woman Egeria concludes her Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land at about this date; her narrative of it, the Itinerarium Egeriae, may be the earliest surviving formal writing by a woman in western European culture.

title: 384

text: May 15 – Emperor Valentinian II, age 21, dies while advancing into Gaul against the Frankish usurper Arbogast. He is found hanging in his residence at Vienne under unknown circumstances.

title: 392

text: December 31 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine at Mogontiacum (modern Mainz), beginning an invasion of Gaul (traditional date, this may have occurred in 405).

title: 406

text: Roman Civil war of 407–415:Constantine III, a general (magister militum), declares himself Roman emperor. To extend his dominion over Gaul and Spain, he takes practically all the Roman garrisons from Britain and crosses the English Channel. Constantine occupies Arles and establishes tenuous authority over Gaul, sharing control with marauding "barbarians". This is generally seen as the beginning of Rome's withdrawal from Britain.

title: 407

text: The Roman usurper Constantine III establishes his headquarters at Arles (Southern Gaul) and elevates his eldest son, Constans, to the rank of Caesar. He sends him with an expeditionary force under Gerontius to Hispania, in order to suppress the revolt of some members of the Theodosian dynasty, who are loyal to Honorius.

title: 408

text: Bacaudic Rebellion: Peasants in Armorica, northwestern Gallia launch a revolt. The unrest continues until 417.

title: 409

text: Spring – Constantine III crosses the Alps into Liguria (Northern Italy), but retreats to Gaul after Gerontius revolts in Spain against his son Constans II.

title: 410

text: Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius I, is captured by the Visigoths and becomes a hostage during their move from the Italian Peninsula to Gaul.

title: 410

text: Battle or siege of Arles: Emperor Honorius sends two Roman generals to deal with the usurper Constantine III in Gaul. They take over the army of Gerontius, Constantine's rebellious general (magister militum) who flees to Spain, then defeat Edobichus near Arles and defeat Constantine III. He is taken prisoner and put to death at Ravenna.

title: AD 411

text: The Visigoths, led by King Ataulf, move into the south of Gaul. He establishes his residence at Narbonne, and makes an alliance with Emperor Honorius, against the usurper Jovinus.

title: 412

text: Jovinus, Roman usurper of Gaul

title: 413

text: Constantius III, Roman general (magister militum), begins a military campaign against the Visigoths in Gaul. He blockades the Gallic ports and besieges Marseille.

title: 414

text: Constantius, Roman general (magister militum), drives the Visigoths out of Gaul. He captures the usurper Priscus Attalus, and sends him under military escort to Ravenna.

title: 415

text: Rutilius Claudius Namatianus begins his journey home from Rome to Gaul. This becomes the subject of his unfinished poem, De Reditu Suo.

title: 416

text: Emperor Honorius bribes Wallia, king of the Visigoths, into regaining Hispania for the Roman Empire. His victory over the Vandals in 416 forces them to retire to Baetica. The Visigothic territory in Gaul now extends from the Garonne to the Loire, and becomes known as the Visigothic Kingdom.

title: 418

text: The Franks cross the Rhine and invade Northern Gaul. In Italia an army is prepared to campaign with Castinus as chief.

title: AD 420

text: The Roman army invades Gaul; they capture and execute the Frankish king Theudemeres with his family.

title: 422

text: Flavius Aetius leads a force of Huns (60,000 men) into Northern Italy. He reaches a compromise with Placidia, in return for obtaining the rank commander-in-chief (magister militum) in Gaul.

title: 425

text: Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum), ends the Gothic revolt of Theodoric I in southern Gaul.

title: 426

text: Flavius Aetius gains appointment as master of both services (magister militum praesentalis), after gaining victories in Gaul over Visigoth and Frankish forces.

title: 428

text: Frankish War (428): Commander-in-chief of the Roman army Aetius put an end to the invasion of Chlodio, king of the Salian Franks in Northern Gaul.

title: 428

text: Pope Celestine I dispatches two bishops from Gaul, Germanus of Auxerre and Lupus of Troyes to Britain combat the Pelagian heresy.

title: 429

text: Roman general (magister militum) Flavius Aetius begins a campaign in Gaul against the Burgundians, following their raids into neighbouring Gallia Belgica by King Gunther.

title: 435

text: End of the Burgundian Revolt of Gunther: Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum), attempts to put an end to Burgundian raids in Gaul. He calls in Hun mercenaries under the command of Attila and his brother Bleda, which plunder Augusta Vangionum, killing some 20,000 Burgundians. The Kingdom of the Burgundians is destroyed; King Gunther and his family are killed (this epic disaster will later provide the source for the Nibelungenlied).

title: 436

text: Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum) beats Tibatto and ends temporary the uprising of the Baguads. Then he secures the besieged city of Narbonne (Southern Gaul) against King Theodoric I. He concludes a peace treaty with the Visigoths, and becomes consul for the second time.

title: 437

text: Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum), returns as triumphator back to Rome, after several years' fighting the Burgundians and Visigoths in Gaul. He is honoured by a statue erected by the Senate, and by order of Emperor Valentinian III.

title: 440

text: Valentinian III forms a marriage proposal for his eldest daughter Eudocia and Genseric's son Huneric. He is already married to a Visigoth princess, and Genseric decides to free him of his obligations by accusing her of trying to poison him. He leaves her mutilated - her ears and nose are cut off - and sends her back to her father Theodoric I, in Toulouse (Gaul).

title: AD 442

text: Period of civil war and famine in Britain, caused by rival kingdoms and Pictish invasions; the situation aggravates tensions between Pelagian and Roman factions. Pro-Roman citizens migrate towards Gaul.

title: 443

text: The Britons and Anglo-Saxon mercenaries, under King Vortigern, appeal to Flavius Aetius (magister militum of Gaul) for military assistance in their struggle against the Picts and Irish. Aetius has enough problems with Attila the Hun and is unable to send any help (according to Groans of the Britons).

title: 446

text: Flavius Aetius suppresses the Bagaudae in Armorica (Gaul), and defeats the Salian Franks under King Chlodio near Arras (Belgica Secunda); the invaders are stopped around a river-crossing near Vicus Helena.

title: 448

text: April 7 – Attila's forces invade Gaul and sack Metz. The major cities of Strasbourg, Worms, Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Reims, Tournai, Cambrai, Amiens and Beauvais are destroyed by the Huns.

title: 451

text: July 9 – Avitus is proclaimed Roman emperor at Toulouse, and later recognised by the Gallic chiefs in Viernum (near Arles).

title: 455

text: December 28 – Majorian is crowned emperor of the Western Roman Empire and recognized by Pope Leo I. His rule is accepted in Italy, Dalmatia and some territories in Northern Gaul.

title: 457

text: Battle of Arelate: Majorian defeats the Visigoths under King Theodoric II at Arles (Southern Gaul), near the Rhone River. Theodoric is forced to sign a peace treaty and becomes a foederatus (pl. foederati) of the Western Roman Empire.

title: 458

text: The Visigoths under king Theodoric II recapture Septimania (Southern Gaul) after the assassination of Majorian, and invade Hispania again.

title: 461

text: Aegidius dies (possibly poisoned) and is succeeded by his son Syagrius, who becomes ruler of the Domain of Soissons (Gaul).

title: 464

text: King Theodoric II is killed by his younger brother Euric, who succeeds him on the throne. He conquers Hispania and the harbor city of Marseille (Southern Gaul), adding them to the existing Visigothic Kingdom.

title: 466

text: Revolt of Euric: The Aquitanian Goths under Euric defeat a Roman army that was sent by Emperor Anthemius near Arles and conquer a large part of the Provence (Southern Gaul). The city of Clermont-Ferrand in Auvergne is besieged.

title: 471

text: King Euric orders the invasion of Italy, but is defeated by Glycerius. The Visigoths withdraw to Gaul, and conquer the cities of Arles and Marseille.

title: 473

text: Summer – Emperor Julius Nepos grants the Visigoth King Euric legal tenure of his conquests, which include Provence (region of Gaul), in exchange for full independence.

title: 475

text: Odoacer crosses the Maritime Alps with a Gothic army and invades Provence (Southern Gaul). He conquers the cities of Arles and Marseille, after a victorious battle against the Burgundians.

title: 476

text: King Chilperic I dies and is succeeded by his nephew Gundobad, whose realm covers much of eastern Gaul and has two capitals, at Lyon and Geneva. He rules the Kingdom of Burgundy with his brothers Chilperic II, Gundomar and Godegisel.

title: 480

text: Franco-Roman War of 486 – Battle of Soissons (Gaul): Frankish forces under King Clovis I defeat the Roman army of Syagrius. Roman rule under Syagrius ends. The land between the Somme and the Loire becomes a part of the Frankish Empire. Syagrius flees to the Visigoths (under King Alaric II), but Clovis threatens war, and he is handed over for execution.

title: 486

text: Syagrius, Roman official in Gaul (approximate date)

title: 486

text: Caesarius becomes bishop of Arles. His episcopal see, near the mouth of the Rhone River and close to Marseille, retains its ancient importance in the social and commercial life of Gaul for forty years.

title: AD 502

text: September 10 – Council of Agde: The bishops of Visigothic Gaul under the presidency of Caesarius of Arles meet.

title: 506

text: Battle of Vouillé: A Frankish army under command of Clovis I invades the Visigothic Kingdom, and defeats King Alaric II near Poitiers. The Visigoths refuse to be enslaved, and retreat to Septimania (Southern Gaul). Clovis annexes Aquitania, and captures Toulouse.

title: 507

text: Emperor Anastasius I formally recognizes Clovis I of the Salian Franks as ruler of Gaul. He sends a Byzantine fleet of 100 warships to raid the coasts of Italy.

title: 508

text: Clovis I (Chlodowech) becomes the first Catholic king of the Franks, uniting all the Frankish tribes under his rule. He controls an immense territory in Gaul (modern France), and delivers a major blow for the Church against the Arian heresy.

title: 509

text: King Theodoric the Great raises the Frankish siege at Arles; the city is heroically defended by its inhabitants, assisted by the Ostrogothic general Theudis. The Ostrogoths overrun Provence (Southern Gaul), and consolidate their gains in the region.

title: 510

text: The Ostrogoths conquer the Frankish province Rouergue (Southern Gaul).

title: 512

text: Council of Epaone: Bishops of southern Gaul convene near Epao (present Anneyron) in Burgundy. The synod enacts the first legislation against wooden altars, forbidding the building of any but stone altars with chrism (a mixture of oil and spice).

title: 517

text: King Childebert I receives pleas from his sister Clotilde, wife of King Amalaric, claiming that she is abused by her husband. Childebert invades Septimania (Gaul).

title: 531

text: Belisarius, still besieging Ravenna, negotiates a treaty with Theodebert I (whose forces are suffering from dysentery), and the Franks retreat to Gaul. The Byzantine fleet controls the Adriatic Sea and blockades the port of the capital from supplies.

title: 539

text: King Childebert I and his brother Chlothar I invade Visigothic Spain. They capture Pamplona, but Zaragoza withstands a siege and the Franks retreat to Gaul. From this expedition Childebert brings back to Paris a relic, the tunic of Saint Vincent.

title: 542

text: The Ostrogothic Kingdom ends after 60 years of rule in Italy. The Goths are allowed to return to their homes in peace and (re)settle in modern-day Austria. Some 7,000 people retreat to Campsas (Southern Gaul), and resist with minimal help from the Franks against the Byzantines until 554.

title: 553

text: Mummolus, Gallo-Roman prefect, defeats the Lombards at Embrun and expels them from Provence (Southern Gaul).

title: 568

text: The Lombards again raid Southern Gaul, but are defeated by the Franks under Mummolus, patricius and son of the Gallo-Roman count of Auxerre, and are driven out.

title: 573

text: The Franks under Sigibert I pursue his half brother Chilperic I, and conquer the cities Poitiers and Tournai. While he is proclaimed new king of Neustria by the nobles, Sigibert is assassinated at Vitry-en-Artois (Northern Gaul) by hirelings of Fredegund.

title: 575

text: Gundoald, illegitimate son of Clotaire I, arrives with the financial support of Constantinople in southern Gaul. He claims as usurper king the cities Poitiers and Toulouse, part of the Frankish Kingdom (approximate date).

title: 582

text: King Reccared I renounces Arianism and adopts Catholicism. Many Visigothic nobles follow his example, but in Septimania (Southern Gaul) there are Arian uprisings.

title: 587

text: King Guntram sends an expedition into Septimania (Southern Gaul), in support of a rebellion by the Arian bishop Athaloc.

title: 589

text: Mellitus, bishop of London, is exiled by Sexred and his pagan brothers (Sæward and Sigeberht). He is forced to take refuge in Gaul, and returns to England the following year.

title: 616

text: Heathens revolt in Kent under King Eadbald. During the uprising Justus, bishop of Rochester, flees to Gaul.

title: 617

text: King Clovis II of Neustria and Burgundy marries Balthild, said to be an Anglo-Saxon aristocrat sold into slavery in Gaul. She has been owned by Clovis' mayor of the palace, Erchinoald, who gives her to him to garner royal favour (approximate date).

title: 651

text: Approximate date – In Gaul all Roman bishops are replaced with Frankish bishops. They become increasingly common, as Frankish leaders control the episcopate.

title: 661

text: King Godepert makes war against his brother Perctarit. He seeks the aid of Grimoald I, duke of Benevento, who has him assassinated; his son Raginpert escapes. Grimoald usurps the throne and becomes ruler of the Lombard Kingdom. Perctarit is exiled, and seeks refuge in Gaul and Britain.

title: 662

text: June 9 – Battle of Toulouse: After besieging Toulouse for three months, Muslim forces under governor (wali) Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani are defeated by Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, preventing the extension of Umayyad control over Gaul.

title: 721

text: Summer – Eudes of Aquitaine heads for the Frankish city of Reims, to warn Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, of the Umayyad invasion in Gaul, and ask for his support against the invaders. The two leaders meet near Paris; Charles issues a 'general ban' to raise an army, which includes large numbers of Austrasians, Neustrians, and Burgundians. Meanwhile, Arabians ravage the cities of Périgueux, Saintes, and Angoulême, then sack the basilica of Saint-Hilaire outside Poitiers.

title: 732

text: Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, invades Burgundy. Duke Hunald I of Aquitaine refuses to recognise the authority of the Franks, whereupon Charles marches south of the River Loire, seizing the cities of Bordeaux and Blaye. Within 4 years he will have subdued all the Burgundian chieftains, while continuing to fight off Moorish advances into Gaul.

title: 735

text: November – Stephen II crosses the passes of the Alps to Gaul. He leaves Rome unprotected, under threat of a siege from the Lombards.

title: 753

text: Egbert settles at the court of Charlemagne, and learns the arts of government during his time in Gaul. During his stay he meets Eadberht, a priest, who later becomes king of Kent.

title: 786

text: Summer – Emperor Louis I issues an Ordinatio Imperii, an imperial decree that lays out plans for an orderly succession. He divides the Frankish Empire among his three sons: Lothair, the eldest, is proclaimed co-emperor in Aachen, and becomes the overlord of his brothers. He receives the dominion of Burgundy (including German and Gallic parts). Pepin, the second son, is proclaimed king of Aquitaine, and receives Gascony (including the marche around Toulouse and parts of Septimania); Louis (the youngest son) is proclaimed king of Bavaria, and receives the dominions of East Francia.

title: 817

text: Danish Vikings land in the Breton March (western part of Gaul). Duke Nominoe of Brittany fails to withstand them in battle, but succeeds in buying them off with gifts and persuading them to leave (approximate date).

title: 847

text: Viking marauders in Gaul sail eastward from Nantes without opposition, and reach Tours. The monasteries at Saint-Florent-le-Vieil and Marmoutier are ravaged.

title: 853

text: June – Synod of Ponthion: Charles II summons a council, in which a papal brief is read from Pope John VIII. He appoints Ansegisus as papal legate and primate over Gaul, in the West Frankish Kingdom.

title: 876


slug: gauls

label: Gauls

description: Celtic inhabitants of a large part of Europe called Gaul, before the Roman domination

year_label: 391 BCE

text: Quintus Fabius Ambustus and two other Fabii are sent as ambassadors by Rome to a wandering tribe of Celts (whom the Romans call Gauls), under Brennus, who are advancing down the Tiber while the Celtic army is besieging Clusium. After Quintus Fabius' group becomes involved in a skirmish with the Gauls and kill one of the Gauls' leaders, the offended Gauls demand that Rome surrender the Fabii members to them. The Romans refuse, so the Gauls advance on Rome.

title: 391 BC

year_label: 387 BCE

text: Rome begins to rebuild after being invaded by the Gauls under Brennus.

title: 387 BC

year_label: 360 BCE

text: The Gauls again reach the gates of Rome, but are beaten back.

title: 360 BC

year_label: 350 BCE

text: The Gauls, once more threatening Rome, are decisively beaten by an army comprising Rome and its allies.

title: 350 BC

year_label: 283 BCE

text: At the Battle of Lake Vadimo, Roman forces finally quell the allied Etruscans and Gauls. The Roman army is led by consul Publius Cornelius Dolabella. Rome is at last undisputed master of northern and central Italy.

title: 283 BC

year_label: 226 BCE

text: A formidable host of Gauls, some of them from across the Alps, threaten Rome.

title: 226 BC

year_label: 196 BCE

text: The Insubres, Gauls of the Po Valley, believed by the Romans to have been incited to revolt by Carthage, are finally defeated.

title: 196 BC

year_label: 48 CE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Gallic nobles are admitted to the Roman Senate. Claudius grants the rights of citizenship to the Aedui.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 48

year_label: 58 CE

text: Romans learn the use of soap from the Gauls (approximate date).

title: 50s

section: Events › 58 AD › Europe

date: March 27

text: March 27 (night) – Swabians invade the Gallic city of Lugo. The governor is killed.

title: 460

section: Events › By place › Europe


slug: gautama-buddha

label: Gautama Buddha

year_label: 543 BCE

section: Deaths

text: Gautama Buddha Mahaparinibbana (traditional in Thailand and elsewhere - basis of Thai solar calendar)

title: 543 BC

year_label: 528 BCE

section: Religion & Belief

text: 528 BC—Gautama Buddha attains Enlightenment, and begins his ministry.

title: 520s BC

section: Events

year_label: 483 BCE

text: Following the death of Gautama Buddha, the relics associated with his cremation were divided amongst royal families and his disciples, then interned in 8 reliquaries. Each reliquary was then encased in its own burial mound, called a stupa (approximate date).

title: 483 BC

section: Events › By place › India

text: Gautama Buddha, Indian prince, founder of Buddhism (b. c. 563 BC)

title: 483 BC

year_label: 400 BCE

text: Siddhārtha Gautama (also known as Buddha), founder of Buddhism (approximate date)

title: 400 BC

year_label: 248 BCE

text: The Mauryan king Ashoka is dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism and begins establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.

title: 248 BC

text: In India, figures of Buddha replace abstract motifs on decorative items.

title: AD 104

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Buddhist monk Lè Zūn has a vision of "golden rays of light shining down on 1,000 Buddhas", resulting in the creation of the Mogao Caves.

title: 366

text: Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, makes a pilgrimage to India, initiating Sino-Indian relations. Stirred by his faith to Buddhism, he visits the sites of Siddhartha Gautama's life.

title: 402

section: Events › By place › Asia

section: Science & Discovery

text: The seated Buddha in the Yungang Grottoes, Datong (Shanxi), is made (approximate date).

title: 460

section: Events › By topic › Art

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Chinese-influenced sculptures of Buddha begin to be created in Japan.

title: 600

text: Construction begins on the Leshan Giant Buddha near Leshan, Sichuan Province (China). Upon its completion in 803, it will become the largest stone carved Buddha in the world.

title: 713

text: The Shalu Monastery is founded by the Buddhist monk Chetsun Sherab Jungnay in Tibet.

title: 1040

date: December 1

text: December 1 – Archaeologist Alois Anton Führer, Nepalese General Khadga Samsher Rana and an expedition rediscover the great stone pillar of Ashoka at Lumbini, traditionally the spot of the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, after using Faxian's records.

title: 1896

section: Events › December

date: May 8

text: May 8 – Huế Phật Đản shootings: The Army of the Republic of Vietnam opens fire on Buddhists who defy a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the birthday of Gautama Buddha, killing 9. Earlier, President Ngô Đình Diệm allowed the flying of the Vatican flag in honour of his brother, Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục, triggering the Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam.

title: 1963

section: Events › May


slug: gaza-city

label: Gaza City

description: ancient Levantine metropolis and modern city in Gaza Strip

year_label: 332 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Leaving Parmenion in Syria, Alexander advances south without opposition until he reaches Gaza where bitter resistance halts him for two months, and he sustains a serious shoulder wound during a sortie.

title: 332 BC

section: Events › By place › Macedonia

year_label: 217 BCE

date: June 22

text: June 22 – Egyptian native hoplites under Ptolemy IV crush the Seleucid army under Antiochus III in the Battle of Raphia near Gaza. The realization of their military importance leads to demands by native Egyptians for greater privileges and so to the development of racial difficulties which will weaken the Ptolemy dynasty in the future.

title: 217 BC

section: Events › By place › Egypt

section: Births

text: Saint Porphyry, bishop of Gaza (approximate date)

title: 347

text: John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, receives a delegation of clergy who want to close the pagan temples at Gaza (Palestine) where worshippers are openly defying the law. John works through the eunuch Eutropius, who has great power over emperor Arcadius, and within a week an imperial Constitution is issued closing the Roman temples, but the official appointed to execute this order is bribed.

title: 398

text: Cynegius, acting for Emperor Arcadius at the insistence of Bishop Porphyry, orders the destruction of pagan temples in Gaza.

title: 402

date: February 26

text: February 26 – Saint Porphyry, bishop of Gaza (Palestine)

title: AD 420

text: Barsanuphius, a famous hermit close to Gaza, retreats fully from the world after the death of Seridus, abbot of the nearby monastery, and fellow hermit John the Prophet with whom he wrote over 850 letters to people seeking his advice and guidance. Aelianos follows Seridus as abbot of the monastery.

title: 543

date: February 4

text: February 4 – Battle of Dathin: Rashidun forces under Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan defeat the Christian Arabs around Gaza. The Muslim victory is celebrated by the local Jews, who have been a persecuted minority within the Byzantine Empire.

title: 634

section: Events › By place › Arabia

text: Gaza is conquered by the Muslim Arabs under 'Amr ibn al-'As. It becomes the first city in Palestine developed into a centre of Islamic law.

title: 635

text: Winter – Egyptian forces, led by Saladin, invade the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and besiege Darum on the Mediterranean coast. Its defenses are weak, and though Saladin has no siege engines with him, the fall seems imminent. King Amalric I withdraws his Templar garrison from Gaza, to assist him in defending Darum. Saladin raises the siege and marches on Gaza, where he captures the lower town (despite the stiff resistance ordered by Lord Miles of Plancy), and massacres the inhabitants. However, the citadel is too strong for Saladin, and he is forced to retreat to Egypt.

title: 1170

section: Events › By place › Levant

text: Summer – Egyptian troops led by Saladin begins a campaign that paves the way for further Muslim inroads into Christian territory. Al-Adil invades Palestine with the Egyptian army, and captures the strategic castle of Mirabel (Majdal Yaba). By mid-September, Saladin has captured the cities of Acre, Jaffa, Gaza and Ascalon (blockaded by the Egyptian fleet), along with some 50 Crusader castles.

title: 1187

date: November 12

text: November 12 – Sultan as-Salih Ayyub sends an Ayyubid army to Gaza to protect the Egyptian border. At nightfall, Henry of Bar, jealous of the successful ambush of Peter of Brittany, decides to march out towards Gaza with a Crusader force (some 500 knights and 1,000 soldiers). Although warned by Theobald I, Henry sets up camp in a flat terrain surrounded by sand dunes near Gaza.

title: 1239

date: December 22

text: December 22–23 – Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar: Mongol forces under Ghazan Khan defeat a Mamluk army (some 30,000 men) north of Homs. Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad flees with the remnants of his army to Damascus. Ghazan splits his forces, one part sacks Damascus and besieges the citadel. Another part pursues the retreating Mamluks as far as Gaza, pushing them back to Egypt.

title: 1299

date: March 8

text: March 8 – The Al-Shamah Mosque, in modern-day Gaza City in Palestine, is completed after being commissioned by the Mamluk Sultanate Governor of Gaza, Sanjar al-Jawli.

title: 1315

section: Events › January – March

date: September 13

text: September 13 – Commissioned by the Sultan Al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh of Egypt and supervised by the Shaykh's Emir Abu Bakr al-Yaghmuri, the rebuilding of the Ibn Uthman Mosque begins in Gaza City. The Mosque will be completed in 1431 but will be destroyed almost 600 years later in 2024 by an airstrike from the State of Israel.

title: 1418

section: Events › July–September

date: October 28

text: October 28 – Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17): Ottoman forces under the Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha defeat the Mamluks in the Battle of Yaunis Khan near Gaza.

title: 1516

section: Events › October–December

date: November 7

text: November 7 – WWI – Third Battle of Gaza: The British Army XXI Corps occupies Gaza, after the Ottoman garrison withdraws.

title: 1917

section: Events › November

date: February 29

text: February 29 – Gaza war: Soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces open fire on a crowd of civilians in Gaza City, killing more than 100 people, as the Palestinian casualties of the war exceed 30,000.

title: 2024

section: Events › February

section: Climate & Environment

text: August 22 – Famine is confirmed in Gaza City for the first time after the UN-backed body responsible for monitoring food security raises its classification to Phase 5, the highest and worst level. The IPC says more than 500,000 people are now facing "starvation, destitution and death".

title: 2025

section: Events › August


slug: gaza-strip

label: Gaza Strip

description: self-governing Palestinian territory next to Egypt and Israel

section: Religion & Belief

text: The monastery of Seridus, where Barsanuphius and John the Prophet lived as hermits, is founded in the region of Gaza.

title: 520

section: Events › By topic › Religion

date: December 8

text: December 8 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: The First Intifada begins in the Gaza Strip and West Bank.

title: 1987

section: Crime & Justice

date: April 17

text: April 17 – Israeli helicopters fire missiles at a convoy of vehicles in the Gaza Strip, killing Hamas leader Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi.

title: 2004

section: Events › April

date: September 12

text: September 12 – Israel demolishes multiple settlements and withdraws its army from the Gaza Strip.

title: 2005

section: Events › September

date: June 28

text: June 28 – Israel launches an offensive in the Gaza Strip in response to rocketfire by Hamas into Israeli territory.

title: 2006

section: Events › June

date: June 10

text: June 10–15 – Fatah-Hamas conflict: The Battle of Gaza is fought between Fatah and Hamas, and ends with Hamas gaining control of the Gaza Strip.

title: 2007

date: December 27

text: December 27 – Israel invades the Gaza Strip, in response to rockets being fired into Israeli territory by Hamas, and due to weapons being smuggled into the area.

title: 2008

date: January 21

text: January 21 – Israel withdraws from the Gaza Strip, officially ending its three-week war with Hamas. However, intermittent air strikes by both sides continue in the following weeks.

title: 2009

section: Events › January

date: April 7

text: April 7 – The Israel Defense Forces use their Iron Dome missile system to successfully intercept a BM-21 Grad launched from Gaza, marking the first short-range missile intercept ever.

title: 2011

date: November 14

text: November 14–21 – Israel launches Operation Pillar of Defense against the Palestinian-governed Gaza Strip, killing Hamas military chief Ahmed Jabari. In the following week 140 Palestinians and five Israelis are killed in an ensuing cycle of violence. A ceasefire between Israel and Hamas is announced by Egyptian Foreign Minister Mohamed Kamel Amr and US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton after the week-long escalation in hostilities in Southern Israel and the Gaza Strip.

title: 2012

date: July 8

text: July 8–August 26 – Amid growing tensions between Israel and Hamas following the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers in June and the revenge killing of a Palestinian teenager in July, Israel launches Operation Protective Edge against Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip starting with numerous missile strikes, followed by a ground offensive a week later. In seven weeks of fighting, 2,100 Palestinians and 71 Israelis are killed.

title: 2014

section: Events › July

date: May 11

text: May 11 – 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis: Israel hits the Gaza Strip with airstrikes as Hamas increases rocket fire. This follows tensions over the possible eviction of several Palestinians due to a long-standing property dispute in the Sheikh Jarrah neighbourhood of East Jerusalem.

title: 2021

date: May 15

text: May 15 – Fighting between Israeli forces and Palestinian militants continues to escalate, as the death toll exceeds 150. An Israeli airstrike destroys a high-rise office building in Gaza occupied by Associated Press, Al Jazeera, and other media outlets.

title: 2021

date: August 5

text: August 5 – August 7 – Israel launches airstrikes in the Gaza Strip, killing Islamic Jihad military leader Tayseer Jabari. Both parties agree to a ceasefire after three days of skirmish.

title: 2022

date: December 29

text: December 29 – A genocide case against Israel is brought towards the International Court of Justice by South Africa for Israel's invasion and subsequent bombardment of the Gaza Strip, and its role in the subsequent humanitarian crisis.

title: 2023

date: October 7

text: October 7 – Gaza war: Hamas launches an incursion into southern Israel from the Gaza Strip, killing more than 1,100 Israelis and taking about 240 hostages, prompting a military response from the Israel Defense Forces. Israel launches numerous air strikes on Lebanon after rockets are fired by Hezbollah and further attempts are made to penetrate Israel.

title: 2023

section: Events › October

date: March 18

text: March 18 – Israel launches widespread aerial bombardments and attacks on the Gaza Strip, killing at least 591 people, including children, ending the ceasefire agreement reached in January.

title: 2025

section: Events › March

date: October 1

text: October 1 – Israel intercepts the Global Sumud Flotilla, a fleet carrying humanitarian aid to the Gaza Strip, in international waters, arresting 443 activists from 47 countries.

title: 2025


slug: geneva

label: Geneva

description: capital of the canton of Geneva, Switzerland

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The Burgundians sign a peace treaty with Rome, agreeing to serve as foederati in the Roman army. They begin to move from the Upper Rhine and Flavius Aetius, commander-in-chief (magister militum), gives them land in the Geneva area (Maxima Sequanorum).

title: 443

section: Events › By place › Europe

section: Deaths

text: King Chilperic I dies and is succeeded by his nephew Gundobad, whose realm covers much of eastern Gaul and has two capitals, at Lyon and Geneva. He rules the Kingdom of Burgundy with his brothers Chilperic II, Gundomar and Godegisel.

title: 480

text: Tauredunum event: A mountain landslide into the Rhone river destroys a fort and two villages, and creates a tsunami in Lake Geneva. The wave which reaches Lausanne is thirteen metres high, and eight metres high by the time it hits Geneva. Describing the event, Marius Aventicensis writes that the tsunami "devastated very old villages with their men and cattle, it even destroyed many sacred places", and swept away "the bridge in Geneva, windmills and men".

title: 563

section: Conflict & Security

date: March

text: March – Conrad II converges his armies on Lake Lemano and defeats Count Odo II in battle at Geneva (modern Switzerland). For his assistance, Conrad grants Humbert I with the Burgundian county of Maurienne.

title: 1034

date: September 13

text: September 13 – After three years of exile, John Calvin returns to Geneva to reform the church under a body of doctrine that comes to be known as Calvinism.

title: 1541

date: July 24

text: July 24 – The Edict of Compiègne is issued by King Henri II of France, providing for the death penalty to be applied to Protestants for a variety of crimes, including a relapse after having renounced Protestantism; unauthorized travel to Geneva; publication of Protestant books; possessing graven images; and unauthorized participation in Protestant religious gatherings, whether public or private.

title: 1557

section: Culture & Society

text: June 10 – The New Testament of the Geneva Bible, a Protestant Bible translation into English (produced under the supervision of William Whittingham, and printed in Roman type), is published in Geneva.

title: 1557

section: Events › April–June

text: John Knox's attack on female rulers, The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women, is published anonymously from Geneva.

title: 1558

section: Events › Unknown

text: The Anglo-Genevan metrical psalter is published, including the Old 100th, the version of the hymn All People That on Earth Do Dwell made from Psalm 100, attributed to the probably-Scottish clergyman and biblical translator William Kethe, exiled in Geneva.

title: 1561

section: Events › Date unknown

date: December 11

text: December 11 – A surprise attack by forces under the command of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and his brother-in-law, Philip III of Spain, is repelled by the citizens of Geneva (this actually takes place after midnight, in the early morning of December 12, but commemorations/celebrations on Fête de l'Escalade are usually held on December 11 or the closest weekend).

title: 1602

text: Francis de Sales' literary masterpiece Treatise on the Love of God is published, while he is Bishop of Geneva.

title: 1616

section: Science & Discovery

date: March 14

text: March 14 – Jean-Jacques Rousseau leaves Geneva for the first time.

title: 1728

section: Events › January–March

text: Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract (Du Contrat social, ou Principes du droit politique) and Emile, or On Education (Émile, ou De l’éducation) are published in Amsterdam and The Hague respectively. In Rousseau's native Republic of Geneva they are publicly burned and prohibited in Paris.

title: 1762

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Statue of Jean-Jacques Rousseau is erected in his birthplace of Geneva.

title: 1834

date: February 17

text: February 17 – The "Committee of the Five" holds their first meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, which is regarded as the foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, following the lead of humanitarian businessman Henry Dunant.

title: 1863

date: October 26

text: October 26–29 – The Resolutions of the Geneva International Conference are signed by sixteen countries meeting in Geneva agreeing to form the International Red Cross.

title: 1863

date: August 22

text: August 22 – The First Geneva Convention, for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, is signed in Geneva by 12 European states, under the auspices of the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded (predecessor of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement).

title: 1864

date: October 27

text: October 27 – The League of Nations moves its headquarters to Geneva, Switzerland.

title: 1920

date: September 14

text: September 14 – The Locarno Treaties of 1925 are ratified in Geneva, and come into effect.

title: 1926

date: February 2

text: February 2 – A general World Disarmament Conference begins in Geneva. The principal issue at the conference is the demand made by Germany for Gleichberechtigung ("equality of status" i.e. abolishing Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, which had disarmed Germany) and the French demand for sécurité ("security" i.e. maintaining Part V).

title: 1932

date: November 9

text: November 9 – Geneva massacre: Military of Switzerland fire on a socialist anti-fascist demonstration in Geneva leaving 13 dead and 60 injured.

title: 1932

date: July 28

text: July 28 – Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a multilateral treaty of the United Nations, is signed at a special conference in Geneva, defining the status of refugees and setting out the basis for granting right of asylum, coming into force on 22 April 1954.

title: 1951

date: February 5

text: February 5 – The first CERN particle accelerator becomes operational in Geneva, Switzerland.

title: 1960

date: July 25

text: July 25 – The International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos is signed in Geneva.

title: 1962

date: March 8

text: March 8–12 – In Geneva, France and the Algerian FLN begin negotiations.

title: 1962

section: Economy & Finance

date: November 24

text: November 24 – Representatives from 88 countries gather in Geneva to discuss world trade and ways to work toward aspects of free trade.

title: 1982

date: November 19

text: November 19 – Cold War: In Geneva, U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev meet for the first time.

title: 1985

date: June 6

text: June 6–8 – Ceasefire negotiations for the Yugoslav War begin in Geneva; they agree to a one-month cessation of hostilities (which does not last more than a few days).

title: 1994

section: Disasters & Accidents

date: September 2

text: September 2 – A McDonnell Douglas MD-11 airliner (Swissair Flight 111) crashes near Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia, after taking off from New York City en route to Geneva; all 229 people on board are killed.

title: 1998

date: October 21

text: October 21 – The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is officially inaugurated at Geneva.

title: 2008

date: September 10

text: September 10 – The proton beam is circulated for the first time in the Large Hadron Collider, the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator, located at CERN, near Geneva, under the Franco-Swiss border.

title: 2008

section: Health & Medicine

date: November 26

text: November 26 – COVID-19 pandemic: The World Health Organization convenes an emergency meeting in Geneva amid concerns over Omicron, a highly mutated variant of COVID-19 first identified in South Africa that appears more infectious than Delta.

title: 2021