slug: tsardom-of-russia

label: Tsardom of Russia

description: Russian state from 1547 to 1721

text: Daniel of Moscow, youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, is mentioned during this year as an independent Prince of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. This Duchy will be a vassal state of the Golden Horde until 1471, later evolving into the Tsardom of Russia.

title: 1282

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Grand Prince Ivan IV is crowned as Tsar of all Russia at the Dormition Cathedral in Moscow, thereby proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia.

title: 1547

section: Exploration & Expansion

date: August 24

text: August 24 – English explorer Richard Chancellor enters the White Sea and reaches Arkhangelsk. He goes on afterwards to the court of Ivan the Terrible of Russia, opening up trade between England and Russia.

title: 1553

section: Conflict & Security

text: Russia breaks a 60-year-old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland.

title: 1555

section: Economy & Finance

date: February 26

text: February 26 – The Muscovy Company is chartered in England to trade with the Tsardom of Russia and Richard Chancellor negotiates with the Tsar.

title: 1555

date: July 18

text: July 18 – The city of Tartu, capital of the Bishopric of Dorpat (in modern-day Estonia) surrenders to Russia.

title: 1558

text: August 2 – Livonian War – Battle of Ergeme: Russians defeat the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, precipitating the dissolution of the order.

title: 1560

date: November 28

text: November 28 – The Treaty of Vilnius is concluded during the Livonian War, between the Livonian Confederation and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. With the treaty, the non-Danish and non-Swedish part of Livonia, with the exception of the Free imperial city of Riga, subjects itself to Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sigismund II Augustus with the Pacta subiectionis (Provisio ducalis). In turn, Sigismund grants protection from the Tsardom of Russia, and confirms the Livonian estates' traditional privileges, laid out in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti.

title: 1561

section: Events › October–December

date: January 26

text: January 26 – Livonian War – Battle of Ula: A Lithuanian surprise attack results in a decisive defeat of the numerically superior Russian forces.

title: 1564

date: January 3

text: January 3 – In the Tsardom of Russia, Ivan the Terrible originates the oprichnina (repression of the boyars (aristocrats)).

title: 1565

date: September 6

text: September 6 – A mercenary army of Sweden, under Pontus De la Gardie, captures Narva from Russia.

title: 1581

date: May 15

text: May 15 – In Russia, Tsarevich Dimitri, son of Ivan the Terrible, is found dead in mysterious circumstances, at the palace in Uglich. The official explanation is that he has cut his own throat during an epileptic seizure. Many believe he has been murdered by his rival, Boris Godunov, who becomes tsar.

title: 1591

section: Events › April–June

section: Climate & Environment

text: A rainy summer in the Tsardom of Russia causes a bad harvest, leading to the Russian famine of 1601–03 which kills about two million people.

title: 1601

section: Deaths

date: April 13

text: April 13 – Tsar Boris Godunov dies; Feodor II accedes to the Russian throne.

title: 1605

date: July 4

text: July 4 – (June 24 O.S.); Polish–Russian War – Battle of Klushino: The outnumbered forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth defeat the combined Russian and Swedish armies; Polish troops go on to occupy Moscow.

title: 1610

date: March 19

text: March 19–20 – The Moscow Uprising, an armed rising of the inhabitants of Moscow in the Tsardom of Russia against the military Polish–Lithuanian occupation of Moscow (Fall 1610–Fall 1612), results in the occupying forces starting a major fire in the city and the death of 6–7,000 Muscovites.

title: 1611

title: 1613

date: July 16

text: July 16 – Ingrian war: The Swedish Empire wins a decisive victory against Tsarist Russia in Battle of Bronnitsy.

title: 1614

date: February 27

text: February 27 – The Treaty of Stolbovo ends the Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia. Sweden gains Ingria and Kexholm.

title: 1617

date: December 11

text: December 11 – Russia and Poland sign the Truce of Deulino.

title: 1618

date: June 14

text: June 14 – The Treaty of Polyanovka is signed between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia, concluding the Smolensk War.

title: 1634

text: January 29 – Serfdom in Russia begins legally as the Sobornoye Ulozheniye (Соборное уложение, "Code of Law") is signed by members of the Zemsky Sobor, the parliament of the estates of the realm in the Tsardom of Russia. Slaves and free peasants are consolidated by law into the new hereditary class of "serfs", and the Russian nobility are given the exclusive privilege of owning the serfs.

title: 1649

date: June 29

text: June 29 – In the Battle of Konotop, fought near the Ukrainian city of Konotop during the Russo-Polish War, Polish Cossack hetman Ivan Vyhovsky and his allies defeat the armies of the Tsardom of Russia, led by Aleksey Trubetskoy.

title: 1659

text: September 14 – The 13-day long Battle of Lyubar begins at Liubar (now in Ukraine) during the Russo-Polish War between soldiers of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against Russia and ends with a victory by Poland.

title: 1660

date: May 6

text: May 6 – The Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686) is signed between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, recognizing the former's possession of Left-bank Ukraine and the city of Kiev, as agreed upon in the earlier Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667. The treaty also brings the Tsardom of Russia into the Great Turkish War, on the side of the Holy League of 1684.

title: 1686

date: August 27

text: August 27 – China and Russia sign the Treaty of Nerchinsk.

title: 1689

date: April 27

text: April 27 – Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700): Russia begins the Azov campaigns (1695–96) against the Ottoman Empire, with 31,000 troops departing to the Ottoman fortress at Azov on the Don River.

title: 1695

date: January 1

text: January 1 (Julian) (January 11, Gregorian) – The Tsardom of Russia begins numbering its calendar from the birth of Christ (Anno Domini), instead of since the Creation (Anno Mundi).

title: 1700

date: September 28

text: September 28 (O.S.); September 29 (Swedish calendar); October 9 (N.S.) – Great Northern War: Battle of Lesnaya – Peter the Great of Russia defeats the forces of the Swedish Empire.

title: 1708

section: Events › July–December

date: July 8

text: July 8 (June 27 Old Style; June 28 in the Swedish calendar) – Great Northern War: Battle of Poltava in the Cossack Hetmanate (Ukraine) – Peter the Great leads forces of the Tsardom of Russia to a decisive victory over Swedish forces under Charles XII, ending the Swedish invasion of Russia and effectively ending Sweden's role as a major power in Europe.

title: 1709

text: April 13 – The Treaty of the Lutsk, a secret agreement between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Protectorate of Moldavia is signed in Lutsk, Poland-Lithuania (modern-day Ukraine).

title: 1711

text: July 21 – The Treaty of the Pruth is signed between the Ottoman Empire and Russia, ending the Pruth River Campaign.

title: 1711

date: May 19

text: May 19 – Peter the Great moves the capital of Russia from Moscow to Saint Petersburg.

title: 1712

section: Events › April –June

date: September 29

text: September 29 – The Great Hatred: the Cossacks of the Tsardom of Russia kill about 800 people overnight on the Finnish island of Hailuoto.

title: 1714

text: November 2 (October 22 Old Style) – The Romanov and architect of the Great Northern War Peter I, is proclaimed the first Emperor of All the Russias. This replaces the 174-year-long Tsardom of Russia with the Russian Empire, which will collapse almost 200 years later in 1917.

title: 1721


slug: tulunids

label: Tulunids

description: Independent Egyptian Emirate

section: Births

text: Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, ruler of the Tulunid Dynasty (d. 896)

title: 864

section: Religion & Belief

date: September 15

text: September 15 – Ahmad ibn Tulun, a Turkish general, is sent to Egypt as governor, by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tazz. He becomes the founder of the Tulunid Dynasty (until 905), and Egypt becomes an autonomous state for the first time since the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

title: 868

section: Events › By place › Africa

date: December

text: December – Ishaq ibn Kundaj, a Turkic military leader, arrests the Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tamid, when the latter (and his followers) try to flee into Tulunid territory.

title: 882

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

date: May 10

text: May 10 – Ahmad ibn Tulun, founder of the Tulunid Dynasty, dies after a 15-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Khumarawayh, as ruler of Egypt and Syria.

title: 884

text: Battle of Tawahin: Muslim forces (4,000 men) of the Abbasid Caliphate, under Al-Mu'tadid, are defeated near Ramlah (modern Israel) by Khumarawayh, ruler of the Tulunid dynasty. This ends the Abbasid attempt to recover Syria from the Tulunids. A large part of the Abbasid army is captured, and transported to Egypt. Khumarawayh aims for reconciliation with the caliphal government, and allows the soldiers who want to return to modern-day Iraq to depart without ransom, while offering the rest the opportunity to settle in Egypt.

title: 885

date: January 18

text: January 18 – Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, ruler of the Tulunid Dynasty (b. 864)

title: 896

text: Caliph al-Mu'tadid recovers control of the Cilician Thughur (southeastern Anatolia) and of northern Syria, during the turmoil in the Tulunid government (approximate date).

title: 897

text: Winter – Shayban ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun succeeds his nephew Harun ibn Khumarawayh as emir of the Tulunid dynasty, who is killed in a mutiny during the invasion of Egypt by the Abbasid Caliphate.

title: 904

text: Summer – Caliph Al-Muktafi sends an Abbasid army (10,000 men) led by Muhammad ibn Sulayman to re-establish control over Syria and Egypt. The campaign is supported from the sea by a fleet from the frontier districts of Cilicia under Damian of Tarsus. He leads his ships up the Nile River, raids the coast, and intercepts the supplies for the Tulunids.

title: 905


slug: tunis

label: Tunis

description: capital of Tunisia

year_label: 308 BCE

text: Agathocles leaves his main army under the command of his son Archagathus encamped before Tunis while he, with a strikeforce of 8,000 infantry, 800 cavalry and 50 chariots, marches after the Carthaginian army.

title: 308 BC

section: Events › By place › North Africa

year_label: 307 BCE

text: Archagathus counters by dividing his army in three and sending them against the Carthaginian armies. Unfortunately for the Greeks, one army (commanded by Aeschrion) gets ambushed and another (commanded by Eumachus) is defeated in battle. Archagathus retreats to Tunis, regroups his army and sends messengers to his father in Sicily to inform him on the situation. The Carthaginians concentrate their forces at Tunis as well and start a blockade of the city.

title: 307 BC

year_label: 241 BCE

text: A mercenary army of some 20,000 is transported from Sicily to Carthaginian territory, by Carthaginian commander, Gisco. Upon arrival in Carthaginian territory, the mercenaries submit a demand to Hanno the Great for payment of their contracts. Hanno attempts, unsuccessfully, to convince the mercenaries to accept smaller payments due to Carthage's impoverished post-war conditions. Negotiations break down. The mercenaries take up arms, march on Tunis, occupy it, and threaten Carthage directly.

title: 241 BC

section: Events › By place › Carthage

year_label: 238 BCE

text: Hamilcar and another Carthaginian general, Hannibal, besiege Mathos' mercenary army at Tunis and crucify the captured mercenary leaders in sight of the mercenary battlements.

title: 238 BC

date: December 15

text: December 15 – Battle of Tricamarum: Gelimer assembles an army of about 50,000 men at Bulla Regia (Numidia), and advances towards Carthage. Belisarius moves out to meet the Vandals; he leads the Byzantine cavalry (5,000 men) into battle. Without waiting for his infantry to come up, he charges, despite odds of almost 10-to-1, and throws Gelimer in confusion. Belisarius captures the Vandal camp by storm. Tzazo is killed in an all-cavalry fight, and Gelimer is forced to seek refuge in the mountains of Tunis with the Berbers.

title: 533

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Tunisian Coup: Following the death of the Umayyad caliph, Hisham, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib assembles a small force in Tunis and declares himself emir of Ifriqiya. Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi, wali of Ifriqiya decides against fighting and returns to Damascus. Abd al-Rahman installs himself in Kairouan, and crushes multiple revolts around the country.

title: 744

date: September

text: September – Rebellious Arab troops in North Africa, led by Mansur ibn Nasr al-Tunbudhi in a battle against the Aghlabids, led by the Emir Ziyadat Allah, invade and occupy the city of Tunis.

title: 824

section: Events › By date

text: Tunis is reconquered from the Normans, by the Almohad caliphs.

title: 1159

section: Events

text: In Tunis, a popular rebellion against newly arrived, wealthy and influential Andalusian refugees breaks out, and is violently put down.

title: 1250

text: Before August – King Louis IX of France launches the Eighth Crusade, in an attempt to recapture the Crusader States from the Mamluk sultan Baibars; the opening engagement is a siege of Tunis.

title: 1270

section: Events › Africa › The Eighth Crusade

date: October 30

text: October 30 – The siege of Tunis and the Eighth Crusade end, through an agreement between Charles I of Sicily (Louis IX's brother) and Muhammad I al-Mustansir, Khalif of Tunis.

title: 1270

text: Abu Ishaq, uncle of the Hafsid caliph Abu Ishaq Ibrahim I, sides with the Almohad rebels of Béjaïa, and takes Tunis.

title: 1279

text: Abu Asida Muhammad II, Hafsid ruler of Tunis (d. 1309)

title: 1279

date: August 30

text: August 30 – Peter III of Aragon, traveling with his fleet on a military expedition against Tunis, ends up in the Sicilian town of Trapani, after being asked by the inhabitants of Palermo to help in the fight against Charles I.

title: 1282

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Hafsid forces under Abu Hafs Umar bin Yahya (half-brother of Abu Ishaq Ibrahim I) reconquer Tunis and reinstall the Hafsid dynasty as the dominating power in Ifriqiya. This ends the Bedouin rebellion started in 1283.

title: 1284

text: Abu Hafs Umar I, ruler of the Hafsid Sultanate, takes control of Béjaïa and becomes a rival of the main Hafsid entity based in Tunis.

title: 1286

date: June 3

text: June 3 – At Tunis, Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz al-Mutawakkil becomes the new of Caliph of the Hafsid Sultanate of Ifriqiya in North Africa

title: 1394

date: September 18

text: September 18 – 18 (Dhu al-Hijjah 832 AH) The Hafsid Sultanate Saracens, ruled by the Hafsid Caliph Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II and commanded by Kaid Ridavan, depart from Tunis with 70 ships and 18,000 troops in an attempt to capture Malta, but are repelled by its defenders.

title: 1429

section: Events › July–September

date: April 11

text: April 11 – The visiting Ottoman envoys to France depart from Marseille, six months after having arrived from Istanbul in October. Jean de La Forêt, the new French ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, accompanies the Ottoman fleet with his party on a French galley, and the group sails to Tunis.

title: 1535

date: September 13

text: September 13 – Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes the first person to pass through the new Porta Nuova in Palermo, celebrating the European conquest of the North African territory of Tunis.

title: 1535

date: October 11

text: October 11 – The Spanish under John of Austria take Tunis with little resistance.

title: 1573

text: September 13 – The last Holy Roman Imperial defenders surrender Tunis to the Ottoman General Cığalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha.

title: 1574

text: In Tunis, the mosque of Youssef Deyis is built. It is completed with an octagonal minaret crowned with a miniature green-tiled pyramid for a roof.

title: 1616

section: Events › Date unknown

date: April 28

text: April 28 – Admiral Blake severely damages the arsenal of the Bey of Tunis.

title: 1655

date: April 4

text: April 4 – Battle of Porto Farina, Tunis: English admiral Robert Blake's fleet defeats the Barbary pirates.

title: 1655

date: November 12

text: November 12 – The Army of Algeria captures Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, after a siege of three months, bringing an end to the Tunisian–Algerian War. Mohamed Bey El Mouradi, the Bey of Tunis, flees southward while Prince Muhammad ben Cheker of Tunisia becomes the new Dey on behalf of the Dey of Algiers, Hadj Ahmed.

title: 1694

date: October 1

text: October 1 – Operation Wooden Leg: The Israeli air force bombs Palestine Liberation Organization headquarters near Tunis.

title: 1985

section: Events › October


slug: tunisia

label: Tunisia

description: country in North Africa

year_label: 203 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Roman general, Publius Cornelius Scipio, while undertaking peace negotiations with the Carthaginians at Utica, makes a surprise attack on the Carthaginian camp and destroys it. Then, sweeping down on the forces that the Carthaginians and their allies, the Numidians, are trying to muster on the Great Plains near the upper Bagradas River (in modern Tunisia), he smashes that army in the Battle of the Great Plains. The Numidian king, Syphax, and the Carthaginian leader, Hasdrubal Gisco, manage to escape separately.

title: 203 BC

text: A preliminary armistice between Carthage and Rome is declared and the Carthaginian armies accept Scipio's severe terms. However, on his return to Carthage, Hannibal concentrates the remnants of the Carthaginian forces at Hadrumetum (modern Sousse, Tunisia) and prepares them for battle.

title: 203 BC

text: Battle of Cape Bon: The Vandals defeat the Roman navy under Basiliscus, anchored at Promontorium Mercurii, 45 miles from Carthage (Tunisia). During peace negotiations Genseric uses fire ships, filling them with brushwood and pots of oil, destroying 700 imperial galleys. Basiliscus escapes with his surviving fleet to Sicily, harassed all the way by Moorish pirates.

title: 468

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

date: September 9

text: September 9 – The Byzantine army lands at Caput Vada (modern Tunisia). Belisarius marches his army northwards, towards Carthage (over 140 miles), following the coast, accompanied by the fleet and shadowed by Gelimer. During the march, the Vandal towns fall without a fight.

title: 533

text: Spring – Solomon defeats the Moorish rebels at Mount Mammes and Mount Bourgaon. He secures Byzacena (modern Tunisia) and establishes fortifications along the Numidian border.

title: 535

text: Spring – Battle of the Fields of Cato: The Byzantine army, under John Troglita, crushes the Moorish revolt in Byzacena (Tunisia).

title: 548

text: Muslim Conquest: A 10,000-man Arab army under the command of general Uqba ibn Nafi invades the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa. He establishes a military base at Kairouan (Tunisia) for further invasions, and founds the Great Mosque, also known as the "Mosque of Uqba".

title: 670

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: The African slave trade through the Sahara is so extensive that the town of Zawila (Tunisia) is established.

title: 700

text: The Great Berber Revolt: Muslim forces under Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi, governor of Egypt, break out of besieged Kairouan (Tunisia). He scatters the Berbers, the western and central Maghreb remained under the control of the Berber Kharijites.

title: 742

text: A group of four Basra-educated missionaries, including 'Abd al-Rahman Iban Rustam, proclaim the Ibadi imamate. Followers conquer the city of Kairouan (modern Tunisia), and massacre the Kharijites.

title: 758

text: An Abbasid Caliphate army reconquers the city of Kairouan (in modern-day Tunisia), from 'Abd al-Rahmān ibn Rustam of the Rustamid dynasty. The latter is forced to flee west, where he creates an autonomous state around Tihert (Tiaret).

title: 761

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Caliphate

text: The Kharijite Berbers of Tlemcen and Tiaret try to conquer Ifriqiya from the Abbasid Caliphate, but fail to capture the capital of Kairouan (modern Tunisia).

title: AD 767

text: The Abbasid Caliphate is forced to cede Ifriqiya (present-day north-eastern Algeria, Tunisia and western Libya) to the Aghlabid Dynasty.

title: 800

section: Events › Africa

text: Ziyadat Allah I becomes the third Aghlabid emir of Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia). During his rule, the relationship between the Aghlabid Dynasty and the Arab troops remains strained.

title: 817

section: Health & Medicine

text: The Ad-dimnah Hospital (bimaristan) is created in Kairouan (modern Tunisia), by the Aghlabid emir Ziyadat Allah I.

title: 830

section: Climate & Environment

date: December 3

text: December 3 – Another earthquake strikes the Abbasid Caliphate (modern-day Tunisia), also killing an estimated 45,000 people.

title: 856

section: Events › By topic › Geology

text: Lusterware tiles, that decorated the mihrab of the Mosque of Uqba at Kairouan (modern Tunisia), are made (approximate date).

title: 860

section: Events › By topic › Art

text: Muslim Arab forces under Muhammad II, emir of the Aghlabid Dynasty (modern Tunisia), conquer the island of Malta and raid into the mainland of Italy.

title: 868

section: Deaths

text: Muhammad II, emir of the Aghlabids, dies and is succeeded by his brother Ibrahim II. Towards the end of his reign, a caravan of pilgrims from Mecca introduces the plague in Ifriqiya (Tunisia).

title: 875

text: Abu 'Abdullah al-Shi'i leads the rebellion of the Kutama Berbers (a movement of the Shiʿite Fatimids), against the Aghlabid emirate in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia).

title: 901

date: March 18

text: March 18 – The Fatimid Dynasty founded by Shiite Muslims in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) gains suzerainty over the Aghlabid Dynasty in North Africa. Emir Ziyadat Allah III escapes to the Near East, unable to secure any help from the Abbasid Caliphate to regain his emirate.

title: 909

text: Sicilian Berbers in Agrigento revolt and depose the independent Emir Ahmed ibn Khorob. They offer Sicily to the Fatimid Caliphate in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia). Caliph Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah welcomes this turn of events, but refuses to grant the Berber rulers their autonomy. He sends a Fatimid expeditionary force under Abu Said Musa which lands in Sicily and, with some difficulty, takes control of the island. Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah appoints Salam ibn Rashid as the emir of Sicily. Ahmed ibn Khorob is dispatched to Raqqada and executed.

title: 916

date: April 5

text: April 5 – The Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia) launch the second Fatimid invasion of Egypt (919–921) in an attempt to seize Egypt from its Abbasid rulers. The expedition fails and the Fatimids will be forced to retreat.

title: 919

section: Events › By Place › Africa

text: The Fatimid Caliphate creates a new capital in Ifriqiya, al-Mahdiya on the Tunisian coast.

title: 921

text: September — The Chamberlain Ja'far ibn Ubayd of the Fatimid Caliphate returns to the Fatimid capital of Mahdiya (now in Tunisia) after a successful 17-month campaign to pillage the Byzantine-ruled island of Sicily.

title: 925

section: Events › By date › July – December

date: March 19

text: March 19 – Caliph al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah dies after a severe illness. He is succeeded by his 21-year-old son al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah as ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate. His authority is recognized over most of what later will be Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.

title: 953

text: Buluggin ibn Ziri is appointed viceroy in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) and becomes the first ruler (emir) of the Zirid Dynasty.

title: 972

text: Caliph Al-Mu'izz transfers the royal residence of the Fatimid Caliphate from El-Mansuriya (modern Tunisia) to the newly founded city of Cairo in Egypt. Egypt becomes the autonomous centre of the Fatimid Caliphate. He leaves general Buluggin ibn Ziri to govern the Western North African territories, which will become the province of Al-Maghreb (meaning the West).

title: 973

text: The Sunnis of Kairouan (modern Tunisia) revolt against the Shi'ite Zirid dynasty. The city is quickly retaken and sacked.

title: 1017

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: The 14-year-old Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, with support of the Zirid nobles, takes over the government and (as a minor) ascends to the throne in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia).

title: 1022

text: Emir Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis of the Zirid dynasty in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) attempts to retake Sicily but is unsuccessful.

title: 1025

text: The Banu Hilal razes Kairouan (in modern Tunisia). The Zirid dynasty has to re-settle to Mahdia (approximate date).

title: 1057

text: The Banu Khurasan, a vassal of the Hammdid Dynasty, begin to rule the north of Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia).

title: 1062

text: Conflict between the de facto independent Muslim republics of Gabès and Mahdia (modern Tunisia) in Ifriqiya. Madhia is supported by the Zirid Dynasty while Gabes receives the aid of Roger II, count of Sicily.

title: 1117

date: August 9

text: August 9 – Battle of Al-Dimas: An Italo-Norman campaign in North Africa ends with their troops being massacred by Zirid forces near Mahdia (modern Tunisia).

title: 1123

section: Events › By date › July–September

text: The Hammadid Emirate (modern Algeria) launches an assault against the city of Mahdia (modern Tunisia).

title: 1135

text: Summer – A Sicilian expeditionary force led by Roger II embarks from Messina and takes the island of Djerba (modern Tunisia).

title: 1135

text: Summer – King Roger II launches a full scale invasion into North Africa, seizing lands from Emir Abu'l-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali in what is now parts of Algeria, Tunisia and Libya – thereby opening up more of the mercantile wealth of the Muslim world to Sicilian merchants. On June 18, George of Antioch conquers Tripoli and establishes more Sicilian authority.

title: 1146

text: The Siculo-Normans take control of Gabes (modern Tunisia).

title: 1147

text: Taking advantage of internal strife and a famine episode, George of Antioch takes Mahdia (June 22), Susa (July 1) and Sfax (July 12) in Tunisia, in the name of Roger II.

title: 1148

text: The Almohads conquer Mahdia (modern Tunisia) from the Normans after an important naval success near the city, against Christian reinforcements coming from Sicily.

title: 1160

text: Almohad forces under Caliph Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur reconquer the city of Gabès (modern Tunisia) from the Almoravid pretender, Ali Banu Ghaniya.

title: 1187

text: Caliph Muhammad al-Nasir establishes Almohad domination over the eastern parts of Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia). He appoints General Abu Mohammed ibn Abi Hafs as governor of Ifriqiya.

title: 1205

date: August 15

text: August 15 – Battle of the Puig: Aragonese forces under Bernat Guillem de Montpeller defeat the Muslim army (some 12,000 men) of the Taifa of Valencia at El Puig. The Almohad forces are routed, and many of the soldiers are slain in the action. Zayyan ibn Mardanish, Almohad ruler and governor of Valencia, is forced to go into exile to Tunisia, while offering the surrender of all castles from the Turia River to Tortosa and Teruel.

title: 1237

text: July 1 – The Barbary Crusade begins as the Kingdom of France and the Republic of Genoa attempt to stop the raids of the Barbary pirates by invading the North African region of Ifriqiya and laying siege to Mahdia in what is now Tunisia. Louis II, Duke of Bourbon and Giacomo Fregoso of Genoa bring 6,000 knights and soldiers on 60 ships against 40,000 Muslim defenders led by the Caliph Abu al-Abbas Ahmad II of the Hafsid Sultanate and the Sultan Abu Tashufin II of Tlemcen.

title: 1390

text: Abd al-Aziz II succeeds Abu al-Abbas Ahmad II, as ruler of the Hafsid dynasty in present-day Tunisia.

title: 1394

title: 1394

text: August 21 – King Martin of Aragon, and ruler of Valencia, Majorca and Barcelona, begins the Bona crusade of Christians against the Muslims of Tunisia and departs from the island of Menorca with 13 galleys, 77 warships and 7,500 crusaders toward the Harsid Kingdom, ruled by the Caliph Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II.

title: 1398

text: August 15 – With 132 ships, the navy of Spain's Crown of Aragon, dispatched by King Alfonso V, lands in North Africa at the island of Djerba off of the coast of Tunisia and begins a siege. The Caliph of Ifriqiya, Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II, attempts to defend the island. but the Aragonese take control of Djerba by September 9.

title: 1432

text: January 5 – Abu al-Abbas Ahmad III, ruler of the Hafsid Sultanate in what is now Tunisia in northern Africa, renews the 1547 treaty of friendship with Spain that had been signed by representatives of his father.

title: 1548

text: June 28 – Capture of Mahdia (1550): The Spanish Armada arrives in North Africa to begin the process of capturing the fortress of Mahdia (now in Tunisia) from control of the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1550

text: March – Action of 1616, La Goulette, Tunisia: A Spanish squadron under Francisco de Ribera defeats a Tunisian fleet.

title: 1616

text: September 4 – Al-Husayn I ibn Ali, the first Bey of Tunis (modern-day Tunisia) is defeated at the Battle of Smindja by Abu l-Hasan Ali I with the help of Ibrahim ben Ramdan, the Dey of Algiers.

title: 1735

text: May 12 – In North Africa, Tunisia becomes a French protectorate by the Treaty of Bardo.

title: 1881

text: September 30 – Italy and France sign a treaty whereby Italy virtually recognizes Tunisia as a French dependency.

title: 1896

text: March 20 – Tunisia gains independence from France.

title: 1956

text: July 25 – Tunisia becomes a republic, with Habib Bourguiba as its first president.

title: 1957

text: October 1 – Tunisia and Morocco join the Arab League.

title: 1958

text: April 16 – Israeli commandos kill the PLO's Abu Jihad in Tunisia.

title: 1988

text: December 17 – The attempted suicide of Mohamed Bouazizi, a street vendor in Tunisia, triggers the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring throughout the Arab world.

title: 2010

text: January 14 – The Tunisian government falls after a month of increasingly violent protests; President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali flees to Saudi Arabia after 23 years in power.

title: 2011

text: January 4 – Tunisian street vendor Mohamed Bouazizi dies after setting himself on fire a month earlier, sparking anti-government protests in Tunisia and later other Arab nations. These protests become known collectively as the Arab Spring.

title: 2011

text: Sousse attacks: 22-year-old Seifeddine Rezgui opens fire at a tourist resort at Port El Kantaoui, Tunisia, killing 38 people.

title: 2015

text: July 25 – Tunisian president Kais Saied formally takes power in the country, suspending the parliament and sacking the prime minister.

title: 2021


slug: tuoba

label: Tuoba

description: Extinct people of uncertain origin

section: Births

text: Tuoba Liwei, Chinese leader of the Tuoba clan (d. 277)

title: AD 174

text: Tuoba Liwei becomes the first chieftain of the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei people.

title: 219

section: Events › By place › China

section: Crime & Justice

text: Tuoba Xilu succeeds his father Tuoba Liwei, as chieftain of the Tuoba clan.

title: 277

text: Tuoba Liwei, chieftain of the Tuoba clan (China)

title: 277

text: Tuoba Chuo succeeds his brother Tuoba Xilu as chieftain of the Tuoba clan.

title: 286

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: Tuoba Xilu, chieftain of the Tuoba clan (modern Mongolia)

title: 286

text: Tuoba Fu succeeds his uncle Tuoba Chuo, as chieftain of the Chinese Tuoba Clan.

title: 293

text: Tuoba Chuo, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba tribe

title: 293

text: Tuoba Luguan succeeds his nephew Tuoba Fu, as chieftain of the Chinese Tuoba clan.

title: 294

text: Tuoba Fu, chieftain of the Chinese Tuoba clan

title: 294

text: Tuoba Luguan divides the territory of the Tuoba clan into three areas. His nephews Tuoba Yilu and Tuoba Yituo become chieftains of the western and central areas of (Shanxi province). Tuoba Luguan dominates the eastern area (near Hohhot).

title: 295

text: Tuoba Yituo, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba clan

title: 305

text: Tuoba Luguan, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba clan

title: 307

text: Tuoba Pugen, Chinese chieftain of the Tuoba clan

title: 316

text: Tuoba Shiyiqian, prince of the Tuoba Dai (d. 376)

title: 320

text: Tuoba Yulü, Chinese prince of the Tuoba Dai

title: 321

text: Tuoba Heru, Chinese prince of the Tuoba Dai

title: 325

text: Tuoba Hena ousts Tuoba Yihuai as chieftain of the Tuoba Clan.

title: 335

text: Tuoba Yihuai, prince of the Tuoba Dai clan

title: 338

text: Tuoba Yihuai, ruler of the Tuoba Dai clan, dies and is succeeded by his brother Tuoba Shiyiqian.

title: 338

section: Culture & Society

text: The Northern Wei Dynasty begins in China. The Tuoba clan of the Xianbei tribe (proto-Mongol people) is politically separated from the Chinese dynasties established in Jiankang (modern Nanjing). The Northern Wei rulers are ardent supporters of Buddhism. Prince Dao Wu Di, age 15, becomes the first emperor (see Northern dynasties).

title: 386

date: April 26

text: April 26 – Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei dies of starvation in his capital at Luoyang, after a 27-year reign in which he has Sinicized his tribal relatives (Tuoba clan), created a Chinese-style government and instituted a land-reform program.

title: 499

text: A revolt breaks out on the Six Garrisons, on the northern border of Northern Wei China ("Revolt of the Six Garrisons"). Tensions between the elite and the Tuoba-clan severely destabilise the state.

title: 523


slug: turgesh

label: Turgesh

section: Conflict & Security

text: Chinese forces defeat the Western Turkic Kaganate (Central Asia). The West kaganate becomes a vassal of the Tang dynasty. During the power vacuum, Turgesh tribes emerge as the leading power (approximate date).

title: 658

text: Umayyad conquest of Transoxiana: The first Turgesh attack on Muslim-Arabs in Transoxiana leads to the siege and relief of the Umayyad garrison at the fortress of Qasr al-Bahili, near Samarkand (or 721).

title: 720

section: Events › By place › Arabian Empire

text: The Turgesh Khaganate scores a major victory over the Arabs, in the "Day of Thirst" near Khujand (modern Tajikistan).

title: 724

text: Battle of Baykand: The Umayyad Arabs narrowly escape disaster when cut off from water by the Turgesh, and push through to reach Bukhara in Transoxiana.

title: 729

text: Battle of the Defile: An Umayyad relief army (28,000 men) is sent to Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan), which is besieged by the Turgesh. The Muslims are ambushed near the Zarafshan Range, at the Tashtakaracha Pass. The battle results in a Pyrrhic victory, with heavy casualties for the Umayyad army, halting Muslim expansion in Central Asia for almost two decades.

title: 731

date: September 30

text: September 30 – Battle of the Baggage: The Turgesh drive back an Umayyad invasion of Khuttal, pursue them south of the River Oxus (northern Afghanistan), and capture their baggage train. In the winter, the Turgesh and their Transoxianan allies launch a major counter-invasion but are halted and their army is destroyed. Khuttal is then conquered by the Arabs.

title: AD 737

text: Suluk, Turkic ruler (khagan) of the Turgesh

title: 738

text: Kül-chor, ruler (khagan) of the Turgesh

title: 744

date: December 9

text: December 9 – Nasr ibn Sayyar, Arab governor of Khorasan, dies after a 10-year administration in which he has fought vigorously against dissident tribes, Turgesh neighbors, and the Abbasids. Nasr had imposed poll taxes (jizya) on non-Muslims, and introduced a system of land taxation for Muslim Arabs.

title: 748

text: The Karluks defeat the Turgesh Khaganate in Central Asia. Most of Turkestan (former Onoq territory) falls under Karluk rule, except west of Lake Aral, where the loose confederation of the Oghuz Turks is about to emerge.

title: 766


slug: turin

label: Turin

description: city and commune in Italy

date: September 5

text: September 5 – King Authari dies (possibly by poison) after a six-year reign, and is succeeded by Agilulf, duke (dux) of Turin, who marries his widow Theodelinda.

title: 590

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Raginpert, duke of Turin, deposes King Liutpert after an eight months' reign. He usurps the Lombard throne and puts his son Aripert in line for the succession.

title: 700

date: November 22

text: November 22 – King Lothair II dies at Turin (possibly poisoned by Berengar of Ivrea). Berengar is crowned king of Italy and imprisons Lothair's now 19-year-old widow, Adelaide for four months at Como.

title: 950

date: February 25

text: February 25 – Battle of Montebruno: Guelph forces under Thomas II of Savoy invade the Ghibelline territory of Asti (located in the Piedmont region), but he is defeated by the Astigiani army, led by William VII, at Garzigliana (Northern Italy). Thomas retreats and takes refuge in Turin; however, he is later captured by the Ghibellines.

title: 1255

text: Turin is conquered by Thomas III of Savoy, becoming the capital of the House of Savoy.

title: 1280

section: Events

date: April 22

text: April 22 – Battle of Gamenario: The Lombards defeat the Angevins in the northwest region of present-day Italy, just southeast of Turin.

title: 1345

date: October 6

text: October 6 – The University of Turin, originally created in 1404 is re-established in Turin in Italy after having been absent since 1427. Prince Ludovico of Savoy grants ducal licenses to set up colleges of Law, of Arts and Medicine, and of Theology.

title: 1436

section: Events › October–December

date: January 30

text: January 30 – An alliance between the Duchy of Burgundy (ruled by Charles the Bold), the Duchy of Savoy (ruled by Filiberto the Hunter) and the Duchy of Milan (ruled by Galeazzo Maria Sforza) is created by the signing of a treaty at the city of Moncalieri, in Savoy near Turin.

title: 1475

section: Events › January–March

section: Religion & Belief

text: The Italian War of 1536–1538 resumes between Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Francis seizes control of Savoy, and captures Turin. Charles triumphally enters Rome, following the Via Triumphalis, and delivers a speech before the Pope and College of Cardinals, publicly challenging the king of France to a duel.

title: 1536

date: July 9

text: July 9 – The papal legation of Cardinals Marino Caracciolo, Francisco Quiñones, and Agostino Trivulzio meets with Emperor Charles V at Savigliano, south of Turin on orders of Pope Paul III.

title: 1536

section: Events › July–September

date: April 11

text: April 11 – Battle of Ceresole: French forces under the Comte d'Enghien defeat forces of the Holy Roman Empire, under the Marques Del Vasto, near Turin.

title: 1544

section: Events › April–June

date: April 10

text: April 10 – The Treaty of Brussol is signed between Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and a representative of King Henry IV of France, at a meeting at Bruzolo near Turin. The agreement for France and Savoy to remove Spanish occupiers from Italy, is never carried out because King Henry is assassinated one month later.

title: 1610

date: January 2

text: January 2 – A shoemaker in Turin is found to have the first case of bubonic plague there as the plague of 1630 begins spreading through Italy.

title: 1630

date: February 14

text: February 14 – A peace treaty is signed in Turin in Italy to end the War of the Banished between the Duchy of Savoy and the Waldensians.

title: 1664

date: October 4

text: October 4 – Battle of Marsaglia near Turin in the Duchy of Savoy: A French force under the command of General Nicolas Catinat defeats the Savoyard forces, leaving 10,000 dead or wounded, while sustaining only 1,000 casualties.

title: 1693

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Filippo Juvarra starts working on the previously postponed construction of the church of Santa Christina in Turin.

title: 1715

section: Events › Date unknown

date: September 26

text: September 26 – The Treaty of Turin is signed in Turin as a secret agreement between King Louis XV of France and King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia.

title: 1733

date: April 2

text: April 2 – The first Italian Parliament meets at Turin.

title: 1860

section: Events › April

date: May 16

text: May 16 – Angelo Moriondo of Turin is granted a patent for an espresso machine.

title: 1884

section: Events › May

date: May 18

text: May 18 – The first motor race in Italy is held, on a course from Turin to Asti and back, a total of 93 km mi. Five entrants start the event; only three complete it. It is won by Simone Federman in a four-seat Daimler Omnibus, at an average speed of 15.5 km/h mph.

title: 1895

date: February 1

text: February 1 – Giacomo Puccini's opera La bohème premieres in Turin, Italy.

title: 1896

section: Events › February

date: November 1

text: November 1 – Juventus FC is founded as an association football club in Turin.

title: 1897

section: Events › November

date: July 11

text: July 11 – In Turin, Giovanni Agnelli and eight investors form the Italian automobile manufacturer F.I.A.T., producers of the Fiat motor vehicles.

title: 1899

section: Events › July

date: September 15

text: September 15 – Optical fiber is first used to carry live telephone traffic, as an Italian company in Turin, Centro Studi e Laboratori Telecomunicazioni (CSELT) begins operation of two telephone exchanges.

title: 1977

section: Events › September

date: June 19

text: June 19 – Turin, Italy, is awarded the 2006 Winter Olympics.

title: 1999

section: Events › June

date: May 10

text: May 10–May 14 – The Eurovision Song Contest 2022 is held in Turin, Italy. The contest is won by Ukrainian folk-rap group Kalush Orchestra with their song "Stefania".

title: 2022

section: Science & Discovery

date: March 8

text: March 8–17 – The 2025 Special Olympics World Winter Games are held in Turin, Italy.

title: 2025

section: Events › March


slug: turkey

label: Turkey

description: country in West Asia and Southeast Europe

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: c. 1500 BC: Settlers from Crete, Greece move to Miletus, Turkey.

title: 1500s BC (decade)

section: Events and trends

text: c. 1400 BC – Lion Gate at Hattushash (near modern Boghazkeui, Turkey) is made.

title: 1400s BC (decade)

year_label: 696 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: 696 BC—Cimmerian forces begin a conquest of Phrygia (modern Turkey), having failed in their efforts to defeat the Assyrians and moved into Anatolia.

title: 690s BC

year_label: 395 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

text: The Persian satrap Tissaphernes' enemy Parysatis, mother of Cyrus, succeeds in persuading Persian King Artaxerxes II to have him executed at Colossae, Phrygia (now Turkey). Parysatis cannot forgive Tissaphernes for the rough treatment he has handed out to her favourite son, the late Cyrus.

title: 395 BC

section: Events › By place › Persian Empire

year_label: 350 BCE

section: Culture & Society

text: The building of the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum in Turkey) is completed (approximate date). It is the grave of the Persian satrap and Carian ruler Mausolos and is built under the direction of his wife Artemisia. The mausoleum, which is considered to be one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is today partly preserved at the British Museum in London.

title: 350 BC

section: Events › By topic › Art

year_label: 260 BCE

section: Deaths

text: Orontes III, king of Armenia and Sophene (modern-day Turkey)

title: 260 BC

year_label: 200 BCE

text: Alexander the Great, head from a Hellenistic copy of a statue, possibly after a 4th century BC original by Lysippos is made. It is now kept at the Archeological Museum in Istanbul, Turkey.

title: 200 BC

year_label: 189 BCE

text: The city of Philadelphia (now Alaşehir, Turkey) is founded by King Eumenes II of Pergamon. Eumenes names the city after his brother, Attalus, whose loyalty earns him the nickname, "Philadelphus", literally meaning "one who loves his brother".

title: 189 BC

section: Events › By place › Asia Minor

year_label: 175 BCE

text: The construction of the western front of the altar in Pergamum, Turkey, begins (approximate date) and is finished in 156 BC. A reconstruction of it is now kept at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.

title: 175 BC

year_label: 53 BCE

text: Abgar II, Arab king of Edessa (modern Turkey)

title: 53 BC

section: Climate & Environment

text: 139 Mcurn earthquake, listed in bibliographical records of seismology as having affected the city of Mcurn (modern Hösnek, Turkey). The earthquake reportedly took place in the vicinity of Mount Ararat. The region was part of the historic Kingdom of Armenia, corresponding to eastern areas of modern Turkey. A primary source for the earthquake is the work of the historian Movses Khorenatsi (5th century).

title: AD 139

section: Events › By place › Armenia

text: King Ardashir I of the Persian Empire invades the Roman province of Mesopotamia, and unsuccessfully besieges the fortress town of Nisibis (Turkey). His army threatens the border outposts of Syria and Cappadocia.

title: 230

text: c. November – Aurelian is assassinated near Byzantium (Turkey). Aurelian had developed a reputation for punishing corruption with severity, and his secretary Eros was under suspicion. As a result, Eros, fearing for his life, forged a list of high-ranking officers marked for execution. In this way, the secretary tricked the officers into assassinating Aurelian. They then flee into Asia Minor to avoid the wrath of the soldiers.

title: 275

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: Florianus holds power for some weeks and fights indecisively against Probus in Cilicia, but his soldiers, many of whom are from the colder Rhine and Danube frontiers, suffer from heat and disease. He is overthrown and then assassinated by his own troops near Tarsus (Turkey), in collusion with Probus. Probus, age 44, is proclaimed new Emperor of Rome.

title: 276

text: Emperor Probus travels with his army west across the Sea of Marmara (Turkey), and through the provinces of Thrace, Moesia, and Pannonia to defeat the Goths along the lower Danube. He acquires from the troops the title of Gothicus.

title: 277

date: May 20

text: May 20 – First Council of Nicaea: Constantine summons an ecumenical council of bishops in Nicaea (Turkey). The Nicene Creed, adopted on June 19, declares that the members of the Trinity (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) are equal. The council decides that Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon after the vernal equinox. Arius is exiled to Illyria; his works are confiscated and consigned to the flames.

title: 325

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: An earthquake strikes Nicaea (Turkey).

title: 362

date: March 28

text: March 28 – Valens, brother of Valentinian I, is appointed co-emperor (Augustus) in the palace of Hebdomon (Turkey). He rules the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire, from the Danube to the Persian border, and begins the first anti-pagan persecutions.

title: 364

date: October 11

text: 11 October – An earthquake strikes Nicaea (modern Turkey).

title: 368

section: Events › By place › Asia

text: Lupicinus attacks the Visigoths 9 miles outside Marcianople with hastily gathered local troops. His force (5,000 men) is annihilated and the Goths equip themselves with Roman armour and weapons. Fritigern marches south towards Adrianople (Turkey).

title: 376

text: Mor Gabriel Monastery is founded and located on the Tur Abdin plateau near Midyat (Turkey).

title: 397

text: Pulcheria leaves for the seaport Hebdomon (Turkey), and becomes a nun to support Nestorianism in the Holy Land (Palestine).

title: 441

section: Events › By place › Byzantium

date: October 28

text: October 28 – Ibas, bishop of Edessa (modern Turkey)

title: 457

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: July 19

text: July 19 – Leontius, Roman usurper, is crowned emperor at Tarsus (modern Turkey). Empress dowager Verina sends a letter to the governors of the Diocese of the East and the Diocese of Egypt for support. He is recognized in Antioch and makes it his capital.

title: 484

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

text: Persian Christians who follow Nestorianism gather in the second Council of Seleucia (modern Turkey).

title: 486

text: Emperor Zeno closes the School of Edessa (modern Turkey) for their teaching of Nestorian doctrine, whereupon the scholars seek refuge at the Syriac Church of the East.

title: 489

text: Winter – Kavadh I besieges the fortress-city of Amida (modern Turkey). The defenders, although unsupported by Byzantine troops, repel the Persian assaults for three months before they are finally beaten.

title: AD 502

date: May

text: May – Areobindus, Byzantine general (magister militum), is stationed as commander at Dara, with an army of 12,000 men to keep watch at the Persian stronghold of Nisibis (modern Turkey).

title: 503

section: Events › Byzantine Empire

text: Emperor Anastasius I completes the strategic fortress at Dara (Northern Mesopotamia). He raises the city walls to 30 feet (10 m), disregarding Persian protests. Alarmed by the depredations of Slavs and Bulgars in Thrace, he builds the Anastasian Wall from the Black Sea to Propontis, across the narrow peninsula near Constantinople (modern Turkey).

title: 507

text: Anastasius I reduces taxes in the provinces of Bithynia and Asia, to prevent them from joining the rebellion. Vitalian marches to Constantinople and encamps at the suburb of Hebdomon (modern Turkey).

title: 513

section: Events › By place › Europe

text: Autumn – Revolt of Vitalian: Byzantine general (magister militum) Vitalian mobilises his army, and marches again towards Constantinople. He captures the suburb of Sycae (modern Turkey) across the Golden Horn, and encamps there.

title: 515

text: Emperor Justin I rebuilds the city of Anazarbus (modern Turkey) and renames it "Justinopolis".

title: 525

text: Spring – Battle of Dara: Belisarius and Hermogenes (magister officiorum) defeat a combined Persian-Arab army of 50,000 men at Dara (modern Turkey), by entrenching his infantry in a refused position in the centre line, then carrying out a cavalry envelopment to culminate a classic defensive-offensive battleplan.

title: 530

section: Events › By place › Persia

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War of 572–591: Emperor Justin II refuses to pay the annual tribute to Khosrau I, putting an end to the 50-year peace treaty established ten years earlier. The Armenians are considered allies to the Byzantine Empire, and Justin sends a Byzantine army into Persian territory, besieging the fortress city of Nisibis (modern Turkey).

title: 572

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: A Byzantine army under command of Maurice drives the Persians from Cappodocia (modern Turkey), and strengthens the Byzantine position in Caucasian Albania.

title: 575

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: A Persian army under King Khosrau I breaks through the Caucasus into Anatolia (modern Turkey). They attack the cities of Theodosiopolis and Caesarea, but are thwarted. Khosrau is forced to retreat and sacks Sebasteia. On the way home, he is intercepted by a Byzantine force under Justinian (magister militum of the East), and severely defeated near Melitene. The royal baggage is captured, and many Persians drown, while escaping across the Euphrates.

title: 576

text: Eutychius is restored as patriarch of Constantinople, after an exile of 12 years at Amasia (modern Turkey).

title: 577

text: A Persian army under Tamkhosrau crosses the Euphrates River and attacks the city of Constantina (modern Turkey), but he is defeated by the Byzantines and killed.

title: 582

text: The Persian commander, Kardarigan ("black hawk"), begins an unsuccessful siege of Monokarton (modern Turkey).

title: 585

text: Byzantine-Sassanid War: Unpaid Byzantine troops mutiny against Priscus (magister militum per Orientem). King Hormizd IV begins a Persian offensive, but is defeated at Martyropolis (modern Turkey).

title: 588

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: A Persian army under Bahrām Chobin captures the fortress city of Martyropolis (modern Turkey).

title: 589

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: Emperor Maurice defeats the Persian forces under Bahrām Chobin at Nisibis (modern Turkey), and drives them back into Armenia.

title: 590

text: Byzantine–Persian War: King Khosrau II captures the Byzantine positions east of the Euphrates; the Persians destroy many cities in the Levant region, after prolonged sieges such as the Byzantine fortress of Dara (modern Turkey).

title: 604

text: Byzantine–Sassanid War: Emperor Heraclius invades Armenia, leaving his son Constantine (age 11) and co-regent Bonus to defend Constantinople against the Persians still at Chalcedon (modern Turkey). He sails with 5,000 reinforcements to join the Byzantine army at Trapezus. Raising additional forces in Pontus, Heraclius strikes through the mountains of Armenia and the northern sub-Caucasian principalities. He plunders Media (Azerbaijan), and avoids the Persian armies who attempt to trap him.

title: 623

text: Battle of Sarus: Heraclius is victorious in a Byzantine assault river crossing. The reinforced Persians under Shahrbaraz are defeated along the Sarus River, near Adana (modern Turkey). Heraclius recaptures Cappadocia and Pontus, and returns to Trapezus to spend the winter. Shahrbaraz retreats in good order, and is able to continue his advance through Asia Minor towards Constantinople.

title: 625

text: Byzantine–Persian War: Heraclius, his army reduced by campaigning to less than 30,000 men, is on the defensive in Pontus. Apparently he leaves a strong Byzantine garrison in Trapezus, and withdraws north-eastward along the Black Sea into Colchis, where he halts the Persians by aggressive defensive-offensive operations along the Phasis River. By attracting the Persian army under Shahin Vahmanzadegan in Anatolia, he provides Theodore with the opportunity to defeat them. By the end of the summer he threatens the communication of the Persians at Chalcedon (modern Turkey).

title: 626

text: Hormizd VI proclaims himself king in Nisibis (Turkey). He seizes the throne and will reign until 632.

title: 631

text: Constans II establishes a new civil-military defensive organisation, based upon geographical military districts. Byzantine forces maintain the frontier, along the line of the Taurus Mountains (Southern Turkey).

title: 641

text: Battle of the Masts: Emperor Constans II personally commands the Byzantine fleet (500 ships), and sets off to challenge the Arab navy. He sails to the province of Lycia (now in Turkey) in the southern region of Asia Minor. The two forces meet off the coast of Mount Phoenix, near the harbour of Phoenix (modern Finike). The Arabs under Abdullah ibn Sa'ad are victorious in battle, although losses are heavy for both sides. Constans barely escapes to Constantinople.

title: 655

text: Yazid reaches Chalcedon in Bithynia, and takes the important Byzantine center Amorium (modern Turkey).

title: 668

text: Spring – Arab forces that have taken Chalcedon, on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, threaten the Byzantine capital Constantinople. The Muslim-Arabs are decimated by famine and disease. Yazid, the Arab commander, retreats to the island of Cyzicus (modern Turkey).

title: 669

text: Winter – Arab forces under Yazid (son of caliph Muawiyah I) retire to Cyzicus (Turkey). For the next 4 years the Arab fleet installs a loose blockade around Constantinople.

title: 674

text: Autumn – A military revolt breaks out in the Anatolic Theme (modern Turkey). The Byzantine army marches to Chrysopolis, and sends a delegation across the straits of the Hellespont to Constantinople, demanding that the two brothers should remain co-emperors alongside Constantine IV.

title: 681

text: Byzantine–Bulgarian War: Emperor Justinian II defeats the Bulgars of Macedonia and recaptures Thessalonica, the second most important Byzantine city in Europe. He resettles the subdued Slavs in Anatolia (modern Turkey), where they are required to provide 30,000 men to the Byzantine army.

title: 689

text: Battle of Sebastopolis: The Byzantine army under Leontius is defeated at Sebastopolis, (modern Turkey) by Arab forces led by Muhammad ibn Marwan. During the battle, a "special military corps" (some 20,000 Slavs) under Neboulos deserts the Byzantine lines, and goes over to the Muslim Arabs.

title: 692

text: Autumn–winter – The Byzantine general Heraclius, brother of Tiberios III, crosses the mountain passes of the Taurus Mountains into Cilicia with an army. He launches a campaign in Syria, defeats an Arab force from Antioch, and raids as far as Samosata (modern Turkey).

title: 698

text: Umayyad troops invade Armenia, and secure the submission of Prince Smbat VI Bagratuni. The South Caucasus becomes a viceroyalty called al-Arminiya, and is divided into four regions: Caucasian Albania, Caucasian Iberia, the area around the Aras River, and Taron (modern Turkey).

title: 699

text: Arab–Byzantine War: A Byzantine expeditionary force under Heraclius (brother of Tiberios III) defeats and destroys an Umayyad army (10,000 men) at Sisium (modern Turkey) under Yazid ibn Hunayn, killing most and leading the others off in chains to Constantinople.

title: 704

text: Spring – An army of 15,000 Bulgar and Slav horsemen under Justinian II appear before the walls of Constantinople. After three days, his troops discover an unused water conduit under the walls of the city, and enter through the Valens Aqueduct. Hearing that Justinian has taken control of the Blachernae Palace, Emperor Tiberios III flees to Bithynia (modern Turkey), where he evades capture for several months.

title: 705

text: Arab–Byzantine War: The Umayyads under Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik capture and sack the Byzantine city of Tyana (Cappadocia) after a prolonged siege, and following a victory over a Byzantine relief army. Maslamah also leads another expedition in the summer, raiding and conquering Amorium (modern Turkey).

title: 708

text: Arab–Byzantine War: An Umayyad army under Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik raids Isauria (modern Turkey). He is appointed military governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan, succeeding his uncle Muhammad ibn Marwan.

title: 709

text: Arab–Byzantine wars: The Umayyad Arabs under al-Abbas ibn al-Walid, son of caliph al-Walid I, sack Antioch in Pisidia (modern Turkey), which never recovers.

title: 713

text: Emperor Theodosios III concludes a peace treaty with Kormesiy, son of Tervel of Bulgaria, in an effort to secure support against the Arab invasion in Anatolia (modern Turkey). The treaty recognizes the Bulgarian borders, including the newly gained lands of Zagore (see 705). Theodosios agrees to pay annual tribute, and exchange refugees charged with conspiracy against the legal ruler. Goods can only be imported or exported with a state seal. Bulgarian merchants gain official access to the trade market in Constantinople.

title: 716

text: March 25 – Emperor Theodosios III is deposed after a reign of 1 year and 10 months. He is succeeded by the 32-year-old Leo III the Isaurian, a general (strategos) of the Anatolic Theme (modern Turkey). Theodosios and his son enter the clergy, and he probably becomes bishop of Ephesus. Leo brings an end to the Twenty Years' Anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, which marks the beginning of the so-called Isaurian Dynasty.

title: 717

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Muslim forces under Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik resume their expedition against Anatolia (modern Turkey). In a large-scale raid they plunder the fortress city of Caesarea.

title: 726

text: September–October – Umayyad forces sack the Byzantine fortress of Charsianon in central Anatolia (modern Turkey), which remains a contested stronghold during the next century of Byzantine–Arab warfare.

title: 730

text: Constantine V reforms the old Imperial Guard of Constantinople into new elite cavalry and infantry units, called tagmata (Greek for 'the regiments'). He uses these troops against a rebellious theme in north-west Anatolia (modern Turkey), and later for offensive campaigns against Arab Muslim raiders and Bulgars.

title: 743

text: Arab–Byzantine Wars: Taking advantage of discontent among the Muslim Arabs, Emperor Constantine V invades Syria, and captures Germanikeia (modern Turkey). He organises the resettlement of part of the local Christian population in Thrace.

title: 746

text: November – Abdallah ibn Ali, governor of Syria and uncle of as-Saffah, launches a claim for the caliphate, but is defeated by forces loyal to al-Mansur, under Abu Muslim, at Nisibis (modern Turkey).

title: 754

text: Autumn – Siege of Kamacha: Abbasid forces under al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba are defeated at the fortress city of Kamacha, in eastern Cappadocia (modern Turkey). A Byzantine relief army (12,000 men) forces the Abbasids to retreat into Armenia.

title: 766

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Leo IV ("the Khazar") repulses an Abbasid invasion in Anatolia. A Byzantine expeditionary force under Michael Lachanodrakon, military governor (strategos) of the Thracesian Theme, defeats the Muslim-Arabs at the fortress city of Germanikeia in Cilicia (modern Turkey). He plunders the region and takes many captives, mostly Jacobites, who are resettled in Thrace.

title: 778

section: Events › By place › Arab Caliphate and Byzantine Empire

text: September – Battle of Kopidnadon: An Abbasid expeditionary force crosses the Cilician Gates into the Anatolic Theme (modern Turkey). It is confronted by two Byzantine armies at Podandos in Cappadocia, who are defeated.

title: 788

text: September – The Armeniac Theme, located in northeastern Asia Minor (modern Turkey), revolts against Empress Irene, and declares the 19-year-old Constantine VI sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire. Other themes follow its example, and imprison their strategoi. Constantine sends his iconoclast general Michael Lachanodrakon, to ensure that the Armeniacs (his closest supporters) take an oath. Irene is confined and imprisoned in her palace at Constantinople; all her eunuchs are exiled.

title: 790

text: June 22 – Battle of Versinikia: The Bulgars, led by Krum, ruler (khan) of the Bulgarian Empire, defeat Emperor Michael I near Edirne (modern Turkey). The Byzantine army (26,000 men) is destroyed by a counter-attack of Bulgarian heavy cavalry, while trapped in the valley. Krum captures the Byzantine camp and a rich prize, including gold and weaponry.

title: 813

text: Emperor Michael II defeats the rebel forces under Thomas the Slav in Thrace. He and his supporters are forced to seek refuge in Arkadiopolis (modern Turkey). After five months of blockade, Thomas surrenders and is delivered to Michael, seated on a donkey and bound in chains. He pleads for clemency and prostrates before Michael, but is executed.

title: 823

text: Summer – Muslim Arabs under Caliph Al-Ma'mun launch an invasion into Anatolia (modern Turkey), and capture a number of Byzantine forts. Heraclea Cybistra and Tyana fall to the Arabs.

title: 831

section: Events › By place › Abbasid Empire and Byzantine Empire

text: Byzantine–Arab War: The Byzantine fortress of Loulon (modern Turkey) is captured by the Abbasids. Its garrison surrenders to Caliph Al-Ma'mun, after a lengthy siege.

title: 832

text: Constantine Kontomytes, Byzantine general (strategos) of the Thracesian Theme, inflicts a severe defeat on the Cretan Saracens. He leads a Byzantine expeditionary force, to raid the monastic community near Mount Latros (modern Turkey).

title: 841

text: Spring – Battle of Mauropotamos: A Byzantine expedition under Theoktistos is sent to Anatolia (modern Turkey), against the Muslim Arabs of the Abbasid Caliphate, who have raided the Byzantine themes of Cappadocia, Anatolikon, Boukellarion, and Opsikion. The Byzantines are defeated, and many of the officers defect to the Arabs.

title: 844

text: Byzantine–Arab War: A prisoner exchange occurs between the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, at the River Lamos in Cilicia (modern Turkey). The exchanges last for 10 days, and the Byzantines recover 4,600 prisoners.

title: 845

text: September 3 – Battle of Lalakaon: A Byzantine army confronts an invasion by Muslim forces, led by Umar al-Aqta, Emir of Malatya. The Muslims raid deep into Byzantine territory, reaching the Black Sea coast at the port city of Amisos. Petronas annihilates the Arabs near the River Lalakaon, in Paphlagonia (modern Turkey).

title: 863

text: Summer – Battle of Boulgarophygon: Simeon I invades the Theme of Thrace (in the southeastern Balkans). The Byzantines transfer a new army to Europe, to deal with the Bulgarian threat. The armies clash at Boulgarophygon (modern Turkey); the Byzantines are completely destroyed in battle.

title: 896

text: Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Shaybani, Muslim ruler of Diyar Bakr, surrenders at the besieged capital of Amid (modern Turkey) to Caliph Al-Mu'tadid in exchange for clemency. Al-Muktafi, the son of Al-Mu'tadid, is installed as governor of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), ending the semi-independent Shaybanid Dynasty, which has ruled in Diyar Bakr since the 870s.

title: 899

text: Arab–Byzantine War: The Byzantines under Andronikos Doukas, along with Eustathios Argyros, campaign against the Abbasids and defeat the Muslim garrisons of Mopsuestia and Tarsus, near Marash (modern Turkey).

title: 904

text: Summer – Byzantine–Bulgarian War: Simeon I, with the Bulgarian army, invades the themes of Thrace and Macedonia. Simultaneously, the Bulgarian troops penetrate into the regions of Dyrrhachium and Thessalonica to the west. Thrace's largest and most important city, Adrianople (modern Turkey), is besieged and captured. However, the Byzantines promptly regain the city in exchange for a huge ransom.

title: 914

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Hamdanid forces under Sayf al-Dawla raid into Asia Minor. The Byzantines respond with reprisals led by Leo Phokas the Younger, taking captives and razing the walls of Hadath (modern Turkey).

title: 948

text: Battle of Marash: Emir Sayf al-Dawla marches north into the Byzantine Empire and ravages the countryside of Malatya (modern Turkey). On his way back, he crosses the Euphrates and intercepts a Byzantine army led by Bardas Phokas (the Elder), near Marash. The Byzantines are defeated; Bardas himself barely escapes through the intervention of his attendants. His son Constantine Phokas, governor of Seleucia, is captured and held prisoner in Aleppo, until his death from an illness some time later.

title: 953

text: September - October – A Byzantine fleet under Basil Hexamilites deals a crushing defeat to the Hamdanid fleet at Tarsus in Cilicia (modern Turkey).

title: 956

text: November 8 – Battle of Andrassos: The Byzantines under Leo Phokas the Younger defeat the Hamdanid army (30,000 men) in an ambush in the passages of the Cilician mountains, in south Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). Emir Sayf al-Dawla barely manages to escape, and returns to Aleppo with only 300 horsemen. The Hamdanids can no longer afford to raid in Anatolia, which is a turning point in the Arab-Byzantine wars in the East.

title: 960

text: King Ashot III of Armenia (the Merciful) moves his capital from Kars eastward to Ani (modern Turkey). Located on a major east-west caravan route, Ani will become larger than any European city, with a population of about 100,000 that will rival Baghdad, Cairo, and Constantinople. Ani also becomes the site of the royal mausoleum of the Bagratuni kings.

title: 961

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Nikephoros II continues the reconquest of south-eastern Anatolia (modern Turkey). He recaptured Cyprus through Niketas Chalkoutzes, and reorganizes the conquered lands into new themes. In the summer, they take the fortress cities of Anazarbus and Adana. Byzantine troops under General John Tzimiskes besiege Mopsuestia, but with the coming of winter he is forced to retreat to Caesarea.

title: 964

text: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Nikephoros II conquers the fortress cities of Tarsus and Mopsuestia. The Muslim residents abandon the defense and flee into Syria. Nikephoros completes the conquest of Cilicia; Muslim raids into Anatolia (modern Turkey) permanently cease. Byzantine troops under General Niketas Chalkoutzes occupy Cyprus, liberating the Greek population from Muslim domination.

title: 965

text: Battle of Arcadiopolis: John I dispatches an elite force (10–12,000 men) to delay the Kievan Rus'. The Byzantines under Bardas Skleros successfully ambush the Kievan-Bulgarian invaders at Arcadiopolis (modern Turkey). The battle turns into a complete rout, killing thousands. Grand Prince Sviatoslav I is driven out of Thrace and withdraws his forces to the fortress city of Silistra.

title: 970

text: Battle of Alexandretta: The Byzantines defeat a Fatimid force (4,000 men) near Alexandretta (modern Turkey), while the main Fatimid army is besieging the fortress city of Antioch. Coupled with news of an advance against Damascus of the Qarmatians, the Fatimids are forced to lift the siege and withdraw to Egypt.

title: 971

text: John I removes various Bulgarian boyars from their homes, and settles them in Constantinople and Anatolia (modern Turkey), where they are given high titles and lands.

title: 972

text: July: Melias moves against Amida (modern Turkey). He defeats the Arabs outside the walls, and begins to lay siege to the city. After a few days, a violent wind and a thick dust spreads over the Byzantine camp. Covered by the dust, the Arabs attack and rout the Byzantines. Many of them are slaughtered and some, including Melias, are taken prisoner. Previous Byzantine gains in the area are lost. The wounded Melias dies later in captivity.

title: 973

text: March 24 – Second Battle of Pankaleia: An Ibero-Byzantine expeditionary force, under General Bardas Phokas (the Younger), inflicts a crushing defeat on the rebels of General Bardas Skleros, at Sarvenis (modern Turkey). Skleros manages to escape, and finds shelter with his Muslim allies. The rebellion is subdued without difficulty.

title: 979

text: 995 Balu earthquake. It reportedly affected the Armenian areas of Balu, Cop'k (or Covk'), Palnatun (or Palin), and the districts of Hasteank and Xorjean. The areas affected were districts in what is currently the border area between Armenia and Turkey.

title: 995

text: Battle of Shirimni, the Byzantine Empire under Basil II defeats the Kingdom of Georgia under Giorgi I at Shirimni, at the Lake Palakazio, modern Lake Çıldır, Turkey

title: 1021

text: Spring – Battle of Svindax: The Byzantine army under Emperor Basil II defeats the Georgians at Svindax (modern Turkey). King George I is forced to negotiate a peace treaty, ending the Byzantine–Georgian wars.

title: 1022

text: c. July 3 – 8-year-old William I becomes duke of Normandy after his father Robert I ("the Magnificent") dies on a pilgrimage at Nicaea (modern Turkey). Robert's death leads to a period of instability in Normandy, as William is too young to take his father's place. The Norman nobles in the region take the opportunity to settle old feuds and to increase their private wealth.

title: 1035

text: Byzantine–Arab War: The Byzantines reconquer the fortress city of Edessa (modern Turkey), returning it to Christian hands, after 400 years of Islamic rule (approximate date).

title: 1042

text: September 25–28 – Rebel general Leo Tornikios (a nephew of Emperor Constantine IX) proclaims himself emperor at Adrianople, and besieges Constantinople. Byzantine troops personally led by Constantine repel him, and re-occupy the walls. Tornikios is forced to withdraw, while his followers start to abandon him. Finally, he is captured at a church in Boulgarophygon (modern Turkey), and is publicly blinded.

title: 1047

text: June 8 – General Isaac Komnenos proclaims himself emperor in Paphlagonia (modern Turkey), and starts a civil war against Emperor Michael VI. He advances with a Byzantine expeditionary force towards Constantinople. At the same time, Michael sends an army against the rebels – western regiments and eastern ones (those from the Anatolic Theme and Charsianon) – to stop him.

title: 1057

text: Alp Arslan succeeds his father Chaghri Beg as governor of Khorasan. He crosses with a Seljuk expeditionary force the upper Halys River and plunders the Theme of Sebasteia (modern Turkey).

title: 1059

text: Spring – Emperor Romanos IV begins a campaign against the Seljuk Turks, and marches towards the Euphrates via Melitene. He crosses the river at Romanopolis (modern Turkey), and captures the strategic fortress city of Chliat on the north-western shore of Lake Van. Romanos leaves a Byzantine rear guard on the upper Euphrates under General Philaretos Brachamios with orders to defend the Mesopotamian frontier.

title: 1069

text: Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a cousin of late Sultan Alp Arslan, consolidates his leadership over the Oghuz Turks and founds the Sultanate of Rum (modern Turkey).

title: 1077

text: Fall – Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder, governor (doux) of the Theme of Dyrrhachium in the western Balkans, and Nikephoros Botaneiates, a general (strategos) of the Theme of Anatolics (modern Turkey), are proclaimed emperors by their troops. Emperor Michael VII Doukas offers Bryennios the title of caesar (co-emperor) if he submits to his rule, but Bryennios refuses. He sets out from Dyrrhachium, and marches towards Constantinople.

title: 1077

text: Spring – Nikephoros Botaneiates, a Byzantine general (strategos) of the Theme of the Anatolics, revolts against Emperor Michael VII Doukas. With the support of the Seljuk Turks who provide him with troops, Nikephoros marches upon Nicaea (modern Turkey). He defeats the imperial army and proclaims himself emperor.

title: 1078

text: The Seljuk Turks under Sultan Suleiman ibn Qutulmish reach and occupy the western coast of Asia Minor, an area known since the Archaic Period (c. 800–c. 500 BC) as Ionia (modern Turkey).

title: 1079

text: Autumn – Nikephoros Melissenos, a Byzantine general and aristocrat, seizes control of what remains of Byzantine Asia Minor (modern Turkey), and proclaims himself emperor against Nikephoros III Botaneiates. Melissenos makes an alliance with Sultan Suleiman ibn Qutulmish and recruits many Turkish mercenaries to his army.

title: 1080

text: May 9 – The relics of Saint Nicholas, patron saint of seafarers, are stolen by Italian sailors from his church in Myra (modern Turkey) and transported to Bari in southern Italy.

title: 1087

text: April 29 – Battle of Levounion: Emperor Alexios I, supported by his allies, defeats 80,000 of Pechenegs (including women and children) at the Evros River, near Enos (modern Turkey). The Cumans and Byzantine forces fall upon the enemy camp, slaughtering all in their path. The Pechenegs are butchered so savagely, that this people is almost wiped out.

title: 1091

text: August 2–6 – The People's Crusade reorganize their forces and gather supplies. Alexios I advises Peter the Hermit to wait for reinforcements but he ignores the advice. The People's army (some 30,000 men) is transported across the Bosporus – by the Byzantine fleet to Civetot (modern Turkey).

title: 1096

text: October 21 – Siege of Antioch: The Crusaders arrive outside the city and begin the siege. They can not impose a complete blockade on Antioch. The Seljuk garrison comes out of the city to harass Crusader siege-lines and intercept supply convoys (supported by a Genoese fleet of 12 galleys) from Saint Symeon and Alexandretta (modern Turkey).

title: 1097

text: February 9 – Battle of the Lake of Antioch: The Crusaders under Bohemond I defeat a Seljuk relief force (some 12,000 men) led by Sultan Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan of Aleppo. Bohemond gathers 700 knights, and marches in the night to ambush the Seljuk Turks at the Lake of Antioch (modern Turkey). After several successful cavalry charges the Crusaders rout the Seljuk army, forcing Radwan to retreat back to Aleppo.

title: 1098

text: Autumn – Kilij Arslan I, sultan of the Sultanate of Rum, leads a Seljuk expedition to take over Melitene (modern Turkey). He attempts to capture Edessa, but the Crusader fortress is too strongly defended by its garrison. Kilij Arslan then moves on to Harran, which surrenders to him.

title: 1105

text: Spring – Siege of Nicaea: Malik Shah, Seljuk ruler of the Sultanate of Rum, sends an expedition through Bithynia to the very walls of Nicaea. Seljuk forces raid Abydos on the Hellespont, with its rich custom-houses. Malik Shah attacks and captures Pergamum. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos sets out to meet the Seljuk invaders. He lifts the siege at Nicaea and wins a complete victory near Cotyaeum (modern Turkey).

title: 1113

text: August 15 – Emperor Alexios I Komnenos dies after a 37-year reign, in which he has regained control over western Anatolia (modern Turkey). He stabilizes his frontiers against the wars with the Normans in the western Balkans, and the Seljuk Turks in the East. Alexios is succeeded by his 30-year-old son, John II Komnenos (the Good), as ruler of the Byzantine Empire.

title: 1118

text: Emperor John II Komnenos recovers southwestern Anatolia (modern Turkey) from the Seljuk Turks and then hastens to the Balkans, where the Pechenegs are continuing their incursions. He transfers Byzantine troops to the Danube frontier at Paristrion.

title: 1121

text: February 13 – Muslim forces attack and succeed in breaking the siege lines around Acre. Though the Crusaders seal the breach, Saladin is able to replenish the garrison, by sending reinforcements. For the defenders, this is a temporary respite – and Saladin is having difficulty keeping his army together. Taqi al-Din, Saladin's nephew and one of his most effective commanders, fails to rejoin the siege. He divides his army for his own territorial ambitions in modern southeastern Turkey. Later in the spring, Taqi al-Din brings his forces to support the double-siege at Acre.

title: 1191

text: July 1 – Al-Nasir Muhammad, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, asks for aid from the Ikhanate Mongol ruler of Iran, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, for help in modern-day southern Turkey. Al-Nasir has started a campaign against the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, led by King Oshin, and Pope John XXII has recently dispatched troops to aid the Armenians. By the time the Ikhanate troops arrive, a ceasefire has been negotiated between the Muslims and the Christians.

title: 1322

text: April – The Knights Hospitaller defeat a Turkish fleet, and sink 100 ships off Imbros.

title: 1347

text: July 26 – Levon of Lusignan arrives at Sis, capital of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and now a set of ruins near the town of Kozan, Adana in Turkey, to take the Cilician throne left vacant by the death of King Constantine IV. Marie of Korikos, Constantine's widow, has been ruling as the regent and supports Levon's the election by Cilician nobles.

title: 1374

text: November 25 – James of Baux succeeds his uncle, Philip II, as Prince of Taranto (modern-day eastern Italy) and titular ruler of the Latin Empire (northern Greece and western Turkey).

title: 1374

text: Uthman Beg establishes the Aq Qoyunlu (Turkomans of the White Sheep) dynasty at Diyarbakır, in modern-day southeast Turkey.

title: 1378

text: March 20 – Manuel III succeeds his father, Alexios III, as Emperor of Trebizond (now north eastern Turkey).

title: 1390

text: The city of Afyonkarahisar (in modern-day western Turkey) is conquered by Sultan Beyazid I, of the Ottoman Empire.

title: 1392

text: July 14 – In what is now central Turkey, Kadi Burhan al-Din, the vizier of and regent for the Sultanate of Eretnia, on a campaign to conquer the Emirate of Erzincan (eastern Turkey and western Armenia) and capture its Emir Mutahharten, is killed in battle by Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg.

title: 1398

text: July 2 – At Erciş in what is now Turkey, Iskandar ibn Yusuf is crowned as the Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu, a kingdom encompassing what are now eastern Turkey, northwestern Iran and northern Iraq, northern Armenia and all of Azerbaijan.

title: 1421

text: April 22 – (5 Safar 851 AH) Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar becomes the new leader of the tariqa (order) of Süleymancılar among adherents of Sufism in what is now Turkey.

title: 1447

text: November 11 – At the Battle of Chapakchur, in what is now the Bingöl Province of Turkey, the tribal confederation of Aq Qoyunlu, with 12,000 cavalry and infantry led by Uzun Hasan, makes a surprise attack against 6,000 troops of the Qara Qoyunlu nation, commanded by the Sultan Jahan Shah. The Sultan is decapitated in the battle while trying to flee.

title: 1467

text: August 17 – The Mamluk Sultanate defeats the Ottoman Empire Army in the Battle of Aga-Cayiri fought in the Cilicia region of Asia Minor, now in Turkey.

title: 1488

text: August 2 – The Jews are expelled from Spain on the Tisha B'Av fast day, pursuant to the Alhambra Decree. More than 40,000 and perhaps as many as 200,000 leave. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire, learning of this, dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities of Thessaloniki (in modern-day Greece) and İzmir (in modern-day Turkey); others settle in Sarajevo.

title: 1492

text: June 21 – Murad, the last Sultan of Aq Qoyunlu in modern-day eastern Turkey fights the Safavid King of Persia, Ismail I in a battle near the city of Hamadan, and suffers 10,000 casualties, including his commander Güzel Ahmad.

title: 1503

text: May 17 – The first merry-go-round is seen at a fair in Philippapolis, Turkey.

title: 1620

text: Zildjian begins the commercial manufacture of cymbals in Turkey. The company will still be operating, from Massachusetts, in the 21st century.

title: 1623

text: The Treaty of Zuhab is signed between the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire and Safavid Persia, delineating the modern Turkey-Iran and Iraq-Iran border lines.

title: 1639

text: July 24 – The Great Fire of 1660 begins in Constantinople, capital of the Ottoman Empire (now Istanbul in Turkey), and destroys two-thirds of the city over two consecutive days, consuming 280,000 buildings and killing 40,000 people.

title: 1660

text: November 30 (November 18 O.S.) – Crimean War: Battle of Sinop – The Russian fleet destroys the Turkish fleet.

title: 1853

text: May 11/12 – Berlin Memorandum: Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary propose an armistice between Turkey and its insurgents.

title: 1876

text: May 30 – Abdülaziz is deposed by his nephew Murad V as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire on the grounds of mismanaging the economy; 6 days later, Abdülaziz is found dead at the Çırağan Palace in Istanbul and 93 days later Murad is deposed by Abdul Hamid II on the grounds of mental illness. For this reason, in Turkey 1876 is known as the 'Year of the Three Sultans'.

title: 1876

text: May 19 – Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkiye and the first President of Turkey, Turkish field marshal and statesman (official birthday; d. 1938)

title: 1881

text: October 4 – The 1914 Burdur earthquake occurs in Turkey.

title: 1914

text: September 12 – French soldiers rescue over 4,000 Armenian genocide survivors stranded on Musa Dagh, a mountain in the Hatay province of Turkey.

title: 1915

text: October 13 – Ankara replaces Istanbul (Constantinople), as the capital of Turkey.

title: 1923

text: October 29 – Turkey becomes a republic, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire; Kemal Atatürk is elected as first president.

title: 1923

text: March 3 – The Ottoman Caliphate, a remnant of the Ottoman Empire abolished on November 1, 1922, and one of the historical claims of succession to the Islamic State of Muhammad, comes to an end with the deposition of Abdülmecid II, Caliph of the Ottoman dynasty. This marks the end of an era, giving way to the drastic political transformations of Turkey under President Atatürk's reforms.

title: 1924

text: November 21 – Ali Fethi Okyar forms a new government in Turkey (3rd government).

title: 1924

text: March 4 – İsmet İnönü is appointed prime minister in Turkey (Turkey's 4th and İnönü's 3rd government).

title: 1925

text: November 1 – İsmet İnönü forms a new government in Turkey (the 5th government).

title: 1927

text: November 1 – Turkey passes a law switching the country from the Arabic to the Latin-based modern Turkish alphabet.

title: 1928

text: August 12 – Turkish troops move into Persia to fight Kurdish insurgents.

title: 1930

text: December – All adult Turkish women are given the right to vote in elections.

title: 1930

text: March 28 – The government of Turkey requests the international community to adopt Istanbul and Ankara, as the official names for Constantinople and Angora. The U.S. State Department adopts the "Istanbul" form in May.

title: 1930

text: September 27 – İsmet İnönü forms a new government in Turkey (6th government).

title: 1930

text: May 4 – Kemal Atatürk is re-elected president of Turkey.

title: 1931

text: February 9 – Greece, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia form the Balkan Pact.

title: 1934

text: March 1 – İsmet İnönü forms the new government in Turkey (the 8th government; during Atatürk's presidency, İnönü has served seven times as a prime minister).

title: 1935

text: July 20 – The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits is signed in Montreux, allowing Turkey to fortify the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, but guaranteeing free passage to ships of all nations in peacetime.

title: 1936

text: April 3 – Refik Saydam forms the new government in Turkey (12th government; Refik Saydam has served twice as a prime minister).

title: 1939

text: December 27 – The 7.8 Erzincan earthquake shakes eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (Extreme), causing $20 million in damage, and leaving 32,700–32,968 dead.

title: 1939

text: January 25 – Refik Saydam forms the new (11th) government of Turkey.

title: 1939

text: June 23 – Talks are completed in Ankara between French Ambassador René Massigli and Turkish Foreign Minister Şükrü Saracoğlu, resolving the Hatay dispute in Turkey's favor. Turkey annexes Hatay.

title: 1939

text: June 18 – The German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship is signed between Nazi Germany and Turkey, in Ankara.

title: 1941

text: July 9 – Şükrü Saracoğlu forms the new (13th) government in Turkey.

title: 1942

text: September 7 – First devaluation in Turkey: the lira loses 40% of its value.

title: 1946

text: May 22 – To fight the spread of Communism, President Harry S. Truman signs an Act of Congress that implements the Truman Doctrine. This Act grants $400 million in military and economic aid to Turkey and Greece.

title: 1947

text: January 16 – Şemsettin Günaltay forms the new government of Turkey. It is the 18th government, last single party government of the Republican People's Party.

title: 1949

text: June 6 – In Turkey, the Adhan (call to prayer) in Arabic is permitted by law after a ban of 18 years.

title: 1950

text: May 22 – Celâl Bayar becomes the third president of Turkey and Adnan Menderes of the DP forms the new government of Turkey (19th government).

title: 1950

text: February 28 – Greece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia sign the Balkan Pact.

title: 1953

text: March 18 – The Yenice–Gönen earthquake affects western Turkey, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (violent), causing at least 1,070 deaths, and $3.57 million in damage.

title: 1953

text: May 17 – Adnan Menderes of the Democrat Party forms the new (21st) government of Turkey.

title: 1954

text: December 9 – Adnan Menderes of DP forms the new government of Turkey (22nd government).

title: 1955

text: April 24–25 – The 1957 Fethiye earthquakes occur on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey.

title: 1957

text: November 16 – Adnan Menderes of the Democrat Party forms the new government of Turkey (23rd government, last government formed by DP and Menderes).

title: 1957

text: October 20 – Two trains collide at Yarımburgaz in Turkey; 95 die.

title: 1957

text: January 5 – After the 1960 military coup, General Cemal Gürsel forms the new government of Turkey (25th government).

title: 1961

text: October 29 – Devrim, the first ever car designed and produced in Turkey, is released. The project has been completed in only 130 days almost from scratch, a period including decision on the project, research, design, development and production of four vehicles.

title: 1961

text: September 17 – Military rulers in Turkey hang former prime minister Adnan Menderes, together with the former Minister of Foreign Affairs Fatin Rüştü Zorlu and former Minister of Finance Hasan Polatkan.

title: 1961

text: June 25 – İsmet İnönü of the CHP forms the new government of Turkey (27th government, coalition partners; YTP and CKMP).

title: 1962

text: February 20 – Suat Hayri Ürgüplü forms the new (interim) government of Turkey (29th government).

title: 1965

text: August 19 – The 6.8 Varto earthquake affects the town of Varto in eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing at least 2,394–3,000 and injuring at least 1,420.

title: 1966

text: March 6 – Süleyman Demirel of AP forms the new government of Turkey (32nd government).

title: 1970

text: April 26 – The government of Turkey declares a state of siege in 11 provinces, including Ankara, in response to violent demonstrations.

title: 1971

text: December 11 – Nihat Erim forms the new government of Turkey (34th government; Nihat Erim has served two times as prime minister).

title: 1971

text: March 26 – Nihat Erim (a former CHP member) forms the new government of Turkey (33rd government, composed mostly of technocrats).

title: 1971

text: May 12 – An earthquake in Turkey destroys most of the city of Burdur.

title: 1971

text: May 22 – An earthquake lasting 20 seconds destroys most of Bingöl, Turkey; more than 1,000 are killed and 10,000 are made homeless.

title: 1971

text: May 22 – Ferit Melen forms the new (interim) government of Turkey (35th government)

title: 1972

text: April 15 – Naim Talu, a former civil servant, forms the new government of Turkey (36th government).

title: 1973

text: April 5 – Fahri Korutürk becomes the sixth president of Turkey.

title: 1973

text: August 14 – Turkey invades Cyprus for the second time, occupying 37% of the island's territory.

title: 1974

text: January 25 – Bülent Ecevit of CHP forms the new government of Turkey (37th government, partner MSP).

title: 1974

text: June 21 – Bülent Ecevit, of CHP forms the new government of Turkey (40th government since the founding of the Turkish republic, but fails to receive the vote of confidence).

title: 1977

text: January 5 – Bülent Ecevit, of CHP, forms the new government of Turkey (42nd government).

title: 1978

text: July 19 – Former Turkish Prime Minister Nihat Erim is killed by two gunmen in Istanbul, Turkey.

title: 1980

text: September 21 – Bülent Ulusu, ex admiral, forms the new government of Turkey (44th government, composed mostly of technocrats).

title: 1980

text: May 13 – Pope John Paul II assassination attempt: Pope John Paul II is shot by Mehmet Ali Ağca, a Turkish gunman, as he enters St. Peter's Square in Vatican City to address a general audience. The Pope recovers.

title: 1981

text: November 8 – Kenan Evren becomes the seventh president of Turkey as a result of the constitution referendum. His former title was "head of state".

title: 1982

text: December 13 – Turgut Özal, of ANAP forms the new government of Turkey (45th government); beginning a new civilian regime.

title: 1983

text: December 21 – Turgut Özal of ANAP forms the new government of Turkey (46th government).

title: 1987

text: March 28 – The 1987 Aegean crisis, which occurred near the Greek island of Thasos, was a confrontation between Greece and Turkey that was ultimately resolved peacefully. Turkey agreed to withdraw its vessels under the condition of Greece not pursue oil drills beyond its territorial waters.

title: 1987

text: July 3 – The Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge in Istanbul, Turkey, is completed, providing the second connection between the continents of Europe and Asia over the Bosphorus.

title: 1988

text: March 13 – The 6.7 Erzincan earthquake affects eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), killing 498–652 and injuring around 2,000.

title: 1992

text: January 24 – In Turkey, thousands protest against the murder of journalist Uğur Mumcu.

title: 1993

text: October 30 – Tansu Çiller of DYP forms the new government (52nd government) of Turkey.

title: 1995

text: October 5 – Tansu Çiller of DYP forms the new government of Turkey (51st government), a minority government which lasts for less than a month.

title: 1995

text: April 6 – Turkish authorities begin Operation Hawk, a military offensive against rebels from the Kurdistan Workers' Party in south-east Turkey.

title: 1996

text: June 28 – A new government is formed in Turkey, with Necmettin Erbakan of Refah Partisi becoming Prime Minister of the coalition government, and Deputy/Foreign Minister Tansu Çiller of the True Path Party succeeding him after two years.

title: 1996

text: March 6 – Mesut Yılmaz of ANAP forms the new government of Turkey (53rd government).

title: 1996

text: January 11 – Turkey threatens Cyprus on account of a deal to buy Russian S-300 missiles, prompting the Cypriot Missile Crisis.

title: 1997

text: August 17 – The 7.6 İzmit earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), leaving more than 17,000 dead and around 50,000 injured.

title: 1999

text: February 16 – Across Europe, Kurdish protestors take over embassies and hold hostages after Turkey arrests one of their rebel leaders, Abdullah Öcalan.

title: 1999

text: November 12 – The 7.2 Düzce earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). At least 845 people are killed and almost 5,000 are injured.

title: 1999

text: October 3 – Croatia and Turkey's accession negotiations to the European Union officially starts.

title: 2005

text: January 1 – Japan, Mexico, Turkey and Uganda assume their seats on the United Nations Security Council.

title: 2009

text: July 24 – Turkey begins a series of airstrikes against PKK and ISIL targets after the 2015 Suruç bombing.

title: 2015

text: November 24 – Turkey shoots down a Russian fighter jet on the Turkish–Syrian border in the first case of a NATO member destroying a Russian aircraft since the 1950s.

title: 2015

text: July 15–16 – In Turkey, a faction within the Turkish Armed Forces that organized themselves as the Peace at Home Council, unsuccessfully stages a coup against the state institutions, resulting in the deaths of at least 240 people and triggering a series of unprecedented purges throughout the country.

title: 2016

text: April 25 – The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) unanimously adopted a call to place Turkey back under monitoring due to setbacks in democracy, human rights, the rule of law, freedom of expression, and judicial independence. Turkey last officially exited the monitoring process in 2004 when it began accession negotiations with the European Union.

title: 2017

text: January 20 – Turkey, led by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, announces the beginning of a military offensive to capture a portion of northern Syria from Kurdish forces, amidst the ongoing Kurdish–Turkish conflict.

title: 2018

text: December 19 – Libya's Government of National Accord activates a cooperation accord with Turkey, allowing for a potential Turkish military intervention in the Second Libyan Civil War.

title: 2019

text: October 9 – 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria: President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey announces a military invasion of north-eastern Syria, targeting the SDF and other Kurdish militias.

title: 2019

text: December 14 – Turkey–United States relations: The United States places sanctions on Turkey in retaliation for their purchase of a S-400 missile system from Russia, marking the first time they have sanctioned a NATO ally.

title: 2020

text: May 19 – The European Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution calling for the formal suspension of accession negotiations between the European Union and Turkey.

title: 2021

text: August 17 – Turkey and Israel agree to restore full diplomatic relations after a period of tensions.

title: 2022

text: July 22 – 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine: Russia and Ukraine sign the Black Sea Grain Initiative, an agreement brokered by Turkey and the United Nations to facilitate the shipment of grain exports and reduce soaring global food prices.

title: 2022

text: February 6 – A 7.8 earthquake strikes southern and central Turkey and northern and western Syria followed by a 7.7 aftershock on the same day, causing widespread damage and at more than 59,000 fatalities and 121,000 injured.

title: 2023

text: December 23 – Harmony Jets Flight 185, a Dassault Falcon 50, crashes near Ankara, Turkey, killing all eight people on board, including Libyan Army chief of staff Mohammed al-Haddad.

title: 2025

text: March 19 – Nationwide protests erupt across Turkey following the arrest of the mayor of Istanbul, Ekrem İmamoğlu, on charges of corruption and terrorism.

title: 2025