slug: roman-consul

label: Roman consul

description: political office in ancient Rome

year_label: 509 BCE

text: The first pair of Roman consuls are elected.

title: 509 BC

text: Lucius Junius Brutus, Roman consul and founder of the Roman Republic (traditional date)

title: 509 BC

year_label: 496 BCE

text: Marcus Valerius Volusus and Titus Herminius Aquilinus, both former Roman consuls died at the Battle of Lake Regillus

title: 496 BC

year_label: 493 BCE

text: During his second consulate, the Roman consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinus concludes a treaty with the Latin League, the Foedus Cassianum, confirming Roman primacy in Latium.

title: 493 BC

text: Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, former Roman consul.

title: 493 BC

year_label: 486 BCE

text: During his third consulate, the Roman consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinus proposes an agrarian law to assist needy plebeians. The proposal is vehemently opposed by the patricians including the other consul Proculus Verginius Tricostus Rutilus, and the plebs turn against the patricians. In the following year Cassius is condemned and executed for high treason.

title: 486 BC

text: Spurius Cassius Vecellinus, Roman consul (executed)

title: 486 BC

year_label: 485 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

text: Three times Roman consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinus is tried, condemned and executed for high treason.

title: 485 BC

text: Spurius Cassius Vecellinus, three times Roman consul.

title: 485 BC

year_label: 452 BCE

text: Sextus Quinctilius, consul of the Roman Republic, 453–452 BC, plague.

title: 452 BC

year_label: 451 BCE

text: Following the report of a three-man commission into the design of Roman law, the patricians set up in Rome a Board of Ten, the Decemviri. The first Decemviri, composed entirely of patricians is led by consuls Appius Claudius Crassus and Titus Genucius Augurinus. The first ten codes of the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables are completed by the first Decemvirate.

title: 451 BC

year_label: 357 BCE

text: Gaius Marcius Rutilus elected Consul

title: 357 BC

year_label: 340 BCE

text: Appius Claudius Caecus, Roman politician and consul (approximate date)

title: 340 BC

year_label: 314 BCE

text: The Roman consuls march their combined army to Tarracina and defeat a Samnite army there; killing 10,000 Samnites in the battle and the subsequent pursuit.

title: 314 BC

year_label: 313 BCE

text: The consul Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus is credited with the capture of Nola, Atina, and Calatia by some sources.

title: 313 BC

text: The Second Samnite War continues: there are rumours of a mobilisation of the Etruscans; since the consul Marcus Valerius Maximus Corvus is campaigning in Samnium and his consular colleague Publius Decius Mus is to ill to lead an army, the people appoint Gaius Sulpicius Longus as dictator. Sulpicius appoints Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus as his Magister Equitum (Second-in-command). Sulpicius ' mission is to defend against the Etruscan invasion which never materialize; Sulpicius and Brutus remain in camp at Rome until the end of the campaigning season.

title: 312 BC

year_label: 311 BCE

text: The Second Samnite War continues, the Roman consuls Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus and Quintus Aemilius Barbula divide their command.

title: 311 BC

year_label: 299 BCE

text: Titus Manlius Torquatus, Roman consul

title: 299 BC

year_label: 275 BCE

text: When Pyrrhus returns from Sicily, he finds himself vastly outnumbered by a superior Roman army under the command of consul Manius Curius Dentatus. After the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum, Roman commander and statesman, Gaius Fabricius Luscinus, negotiates a peace with Pyrrhus, after which Pyrrhus decides to end his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus, which results in the loss of all his Italian holdings.

title: 275 BC

year_label: 273 BCE

text: Appius Claudius Caecus, Roman politician and consul

title: 273 BC

year_label: 265 BCE

text: Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, Roman consul

title: 265 BC

title: 258 BC

year_label: 254 BCE

text: Marcus Livius Salinator, Roman consul and commander during the Second Punic War

title: 254 BC

year_label: 250 BCE

text: Marcus Atilius Regulus, Roman general and consul (executed)

title: 250 BC

year_label: 241 BCE

text: Tiberius Coruncanius, Roman consul and military commander for the battles against Pyrrhus of Epirus

title: 241 BC

date: March 10

text: March 10 – Battle of the Aegates: The Carthaginian fleet sent to relieve the Roman blockade of the Sicilian cities of Lilybaeum and Drepanum is totally defeated near the Aegates Islands off western Sicily by the Roman fleet led by Roman consul and commander Gaius Lutatius Catulus. The result is a decisive Roman victory which forces an end to the protracted First Punic War, to Rome's distinct advantage.

title: 241 BC

year_label: 229 BCE

text: Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, Roman consul and general (d. 160 BC)

title: 229 BC

year_label: 227 BCE

text: Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, Roman consul and general

title: 227 BC

year_label: 219 BCE

text: The Roman Senate sends the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus to Illyria with an army. On discovering Rome's intent, the Illyrian leader Demetrius of Pharos puts to death those Illyrians who oppose his rule, fortifies Dimale and goes to Pharos. After a seven-day siege by the Roman fleet under Lucius Aemilius Paulus, Dimale is taken by direct assault. From Dimale, the Roman navy heads to Pharos, where the Roman forces rout the Illyrians. Demetrius flees to Macedonia, where he becomes a trusted councilor at the court of King Philip V.

title: 219 BC

section: Events › By place › Greece

year_label: 216 BCE

date: August 2

text: August 2 – The Battle of Cannae (east of Naples) ends in victory for Hannibal whose 50,000-man army defeats a Roman force of 86,000 led by consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus (who is killed in the battle) and Gaius Terentius Varro. 50,000-70,000 Roman troops are killed, making this perhaps the deadliest one-day battle in all history.

title: 216 BC

text: August 2 – Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Roman consul and general (killed in the Battle of Cannae)

title: 216 BC

year_label: 215 BCE

text: The Roman law, Lex Oppia, is instituted by Gaius Oppius, a tribune of the plebs during the consulship of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus and Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. The Lex Oppia is the first of a series of sumptuary laws introduced in Rome. It not only restricts women's wealth, but also their displaying it.

title: 215 BC

text: After having successfully driven the Carthaginians out of Spain, Scipio returns in triumph to Rome and is elected consul. He then prepares to carry the war into Carthage's territory in North Africa.

title: 206 BC

title: 196 BC

text: The Roman sumptuary law, the Lex Oppia, which restricts not only a woman's wealth, but also her display of wealth, is repealed despite consul Marcus Porcius Cato's strong opposition.

title: 195 BC

text: Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus, Roman consul (d. 113 BC)

title: 180 BC

text: Quintus Caecilius Metellus, Roman consul and dictator (b. c. 250 BC)

title: 175 BC

title: 174 BC

text: Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, Roman consul and general

title: 172 BC

text: Publius Rutilius Rufus, Roman consul, statesman, orator and historian (d. c. 78 BC).

title: 158 BC

text: Gaius Marius, Roman general, consul (approximate year) (d. 86 BC)

title: 157 BC

title: 152 BC

text: Lucius Licinius Crassus, Roman consul and statesman (d. 91 BC)

title: 140 BC

text: During Aristonicus of Pergamon uprising against Rome, the consul Publius Licinius Crassus Mucianius is killed in the fighting.

title: 131 BC

text: Publius Licinius Crassus Mucianus – Roman consul and commander

title: 131 BC

text: Aix-en-Provence founded under the name of Aquae Sextiae by the Roman consul Sextius Calvinus.

title: 123 BC

text: The Roman Senate passes the motion senatus consultum ultimum, which the consul Lucius Opimius interprets as giving him unlimited power to preserve the Republic. He gathers an armed force of Senators and their supporters to confront Gaius Gracchus. A pitched battle is fought inside Rome, resulting in the death of Gracchus and many of his followers.

title: 121 BC

text: Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, Roman consul (d. 63 BC)

title: 114 BC

text: Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus, Roman consul and general (b. 180 BC)

title: 113 BC

text: Marcus Livius Drusus (the Elder), Roman consul

title: 108 BC

text: January 1 – Gnaeus Mallius Maximus and Publius Rutilius Rufus become Roman consuls.

title: 105 BC

text: Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Roman consul and general

title: 104 BC

text: Consuls: Gaius Cassius Longinus and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus

title: 96 BC

text: Roman consuls: Gaius Valerius Flaccus and Marcus Herennius.

title: 93 BC

text: Consuls: Sextus Julius Caesar and Lucius Marcius Philippus.

title: 91 BC

text: Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Roman consul (killed by mutinying troops)

title: 84 BC

text: Gaius Norbanus, Roman consul and governor (commits suicide)

title: 82 BC

text: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Roman statesman and consul (b. 120 BC)

title: 77 BC

text: Lucius Octavius, Roman politician and consul

title: 74 BC

text: Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, Roman general and consul (d. AD 8)

title: 64 BC

text: Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi as consul attempts to gain ratification of Pompey's Eastern Settlement.

title: 61 BC

text: Pompey demands that Julius Caesar lay down his command before he can stand for consul.

title: 51 BC

text: Consuls: Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Aulus Hirtius. The Roman Senate confirms Octavian as propraetor with joint responsibility for the campaign against Antony. Hirtius and Octavian mobilize troops for the march to Mutina, while Pansa continues the levy. Embassy dispatched to treat with Antony.

title: 43 BC

text: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian becomes Roman Consul for the sixth time. His partner Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa becomes Consul for the second time.

title: 28 BC

text: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian becomes Roman Consul for the seventh time. His partner Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa becomes Consul for the third time.

title: 27 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic/Empire

text: Caesar Augustus becomes Roman consul for the eleventh time. His co-consul is Aulus Terentius Varro Murena.

title: 23 BC

text: Clades Lolliana: Roman consul Marcus Lollius is defeated by a Germanic horde.

title: 16 BC

text: Marcus Livius Drusus Libo and Lucius Calpurnius Piso are Roman Consuls.

title: 15 BC

text: Tiberius Claudius Nero and Publius Quinctilius Varus are Roman Consuls.

title: 13 BC

text: Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus and Publius Sulpicius Quirinius are Roman consuls.

title: 12 BC

text: Gaius Caninius Rebilus, Roman senator and suffect consul

title: 12 BC

text: Quintus Aelius Tubero and Paullus Fabius Maximus are Roman Consuls.

title: 11 BC

text: Petronius, Roman writer and suffect consul (d. AD 66)

title: 20s

text: Aulus Plautius, later military leader of the invasion of Britain under Emperor Claudius, becomes suffect consul alongside Lucius Nonius Asprenas.

title: 20s

text: Lucius Fulcinius Trio, Roman senator and suffect consul

title: 30s

text: Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula) and Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo become Roman consuls.

title: 30s

text: Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus and Quintus Haterius Antoninus become Roman consuls.

title: 50s

text: Publius Petronius Turpilianus and Lucius Caesennius Paetus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 61

text: Gaius Anicius Cerialis, Roman suffect consul

title: AD 66

text: Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus Caesar Vespasianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 74

title: AD 75

text: Emperors Vespasianus Augustus and Titus Caesar Vespasianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 76

text: Vespasianus Augustus and Titus Caesar Vespasianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 79

text: Manius Acilius Glabrio and Marcus Ulpius Traianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 91

text: Emperor Domitian and Titus Flavius Clemens become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 95

text: Emperor Trajan and Frontinus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 100

text: Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Lucius Licinius Sura become Roman consuls.

title: AD 102

text: Emperor Trajan and Manius Laberius Maximus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 103

text: Lucius Licinius Sura and Quintus Sosius Senecio become consuls of Rome.

title: AD 107

text: Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus and Marcus Atilius Bradua become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 108

text: Emperor Trajan and Titus Sextius Cornelius Africanus become Roman consuls.

title: AD 112

text: January 1 – Gaius Bellicius Torquatus and Manius Acilius Glabrio begin the year as the new consuls, but the two are replaced in April.

title: AD 124

text: Antoninus Pius and Gaius Bruttius Praesens become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 139

text: Emperor Antoninus Augustus Pius and Marcus Aurelius Caesar become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 140

text: Antoninus Pius serves as Roman Consul.

title: AD 143

text: Lucius Hedius Rufus Lollianus Avitus and Titus Statilius Maximus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 144

text: Antoninus Augustus Pius and Marcus Aurelius Caesar become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 145

text: Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus and Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 167

text: Gnaeus Claudius Severus and Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 173

text: Lucius Aurelius Commodus Caesar (age 15) and Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 177

text: Imperator Lucius Aurelius Commodus and Lucius Antistius Burrus become Roman Consuls.

title: AD 181

text: At the climax of his power, the freedman Marcus Aurelius Cleander appoints 25 men as Roman consuls. Amongst these is Lucius Septimius Severus, who later becomes emperor during the Year of the Five Emperors).

title: AD 190

text: December 31 – Emperor Commodus alarms the Senate, by appearing dressed as a gladiator for his new consulship on January 1. His mistress Marcia finds her name on the imperial execution list, and hires champion wrestler Narcissus to assassinate Commodus; the Antonines Dynasty ends.

title: AD 192

text: Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Caesar becomes a Roman Consul.

title: AD 194

text: Lucius Annius Fabianus and Marcus Nonius Arrius Mucianus become Roman Consuls.

title: 201

text: Gaius Fulvius Plautianus and Publius Septimius Geta become Roman Consuls.

title: 203

text: Lucius Fabius Cilo and Marcus Annius Flavius Libo become Roman Consuls.

title: 204

text: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus and his brother Publius Septimius Geta Caesar become Roman Consuls.

title: 205

text: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus and his brother Publius Septimius Geta Caesar become Roman consuls.

title: 208

text: Imperator Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (Elagabalus) and Quintus Tineius Sacerdos become Roman Consuls.

title: 219

text: Imperator Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (Elagabalus) and Publius Valerius Comazon become Roman consuls.

title: 220

text: January 1 – Gaius Bellicius Torquatus and Appius Claudius Julianus II begin their one year terms as the new Roman consuls.

title: 224

text: Emperor Alexander Severus and Dio Cassius are joint Consuls.

title: 229

text: Emperor Maximinus Thrax and Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus become Roman consuls.

title: 236

text: Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus and his 10-year-old son Marcus Julius Philippus Caesar become Roman Consuls.

title: 247

text: On the same day that he is made consul, Maximian launches a campaign against an invasion of Gaul by the Alemanni. After defeating this invasion, he then invades Alemannia itself, entering across the Upper Rhine and returning to Roman territory via the Upper Danube.

title: 287

text: January 1 – Flavius Julius Crispus Caesar, the sons of the Emperor Constantine and his expected heir, and Flavius Claudius Constantinus begin their one year terms as the new Roman consuls.

title: 324

text: Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, Roman consul and intellectual (d. 402)

title: 345

text: January 1 – Arbitio and Lollianus Mavortius begin their term as Roman consuls.

title: 355

text: Julius Agricola, Roman consul and praetorian prefect

title: AD 365

text: Flavius Mallius Theodorus becomes Roman consul and official at the imperial court of emperor Arcadius.

title: 399

text: Eutropius, Roman consul and eunuch

title: 399

text: Emperors Arcadius and his younger brother Honorius become Roman consuls.

title: 402

text: Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, Roman consul and intellectual

title: 402

text: Theodosius II, age 2, becomes consul of the Eastern Roman Empire.

title: 403

text: Mallius Theodorus, Roman consul (approximate date)

title: 409

text: Flavius Felix is elected consul for the Western Empire and issues consular diptychs during his political office.

title: 428

text: Olybrius is elected Roman consul by the Eastern court in Constantinople.

title: 464

text: Basiliscus, with the help of his sister Verina (wife of emperor Leo I), becomes a consul in the Eastern Roman Empire.

title: 465

text: Zeno signs a peace treaty with Theodoric the Great. He appoints him to magister militum and becomes a consul. The Eastern Empire is saved by diplomatic negotiations, and the imperial army is strengthened behind the walls of Constantinople.

title: 484

text: July – Byzantine general Vitalian becomes consul, and is shortly later murdered, probably on the orders of Justinian, the nephew and heir-apparent of Emperor Justin I.

title: 520

text: July – Vitalian, Byzantine general, consul

title: 520

text: January 1 – Decius Paulinus enters the office of consul (the last to hold this office in the West).

title: 534

text: January 1 – Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as consul in Constantinople, the last person to hold this office.

title: 541

text: Heraclius proclaims himself and his son as consuls, claiming the imperial title—and mint coins with the two wearing the consular robes. Syria and Palaestina Prima revolt.

title: 608


slug: roman-dictator

label: Roman dictator

description: emergency magistrate of the Roman Republic, whose action are not subject to a veto

year_label: 501 BCE

section: Religion & Belief

text: In response to threats by the Sabines, Rome creates the office of dictator.

title: 501 BC

section: Events › By place › Mediterranean

year_label: 460 BCE

section: Deaths

text: Conflicts arise between the Roman patricians and plebeians. There is also a revolt by Rome's slaves. During the revolt, the Campidoglio is held by the slaves for a lengthy period, along with the most important temples of Rome. It is during this revolt that consul Publius Valerius Publicola dies. The revolt only ends with the arrival of an army from Tusculum, led by Tusculan dictator Lucius Mamilius. Meanwhile, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus is appointed as consul to replace Publicola.

title: 460 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 458 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: The Roman general Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus is summoned by the Roman Senate to defend the city from attack by the approaching Aequi. He is named dictator of Rome for six months. He goes on to defeat the enemy in a single day at the Battle of Mount Algidus and celebrates a triumph in Rome. Sixteen days after the battle, he resigns his dictatorship and returns to his farm.

title: 458 BC

year_label: 396 BCE

text: Marcus Furius Camillus is made dictator by the Romans. Camillus finally destroys the Etruscan city of Veii in southern Etruria as the town falls to Roman forces after what is said to be a 10 year siege. The capture of Veii and its surrounding territories marks the first major expansion of Rome which doubles its territory after this victory.

title: 396 BC

year_label: 391 BCE

section: Climate & Environment

text: The Roman dictator Marcus Furius Camillus is accused of making an unfair distribution of the spoils of his victory at Veii. He goes into voluntary exile.

title: 391 BC

year_label: 356 BCE

text: Gaius Marcius Rutilus is the first plebeian to be chosen as a dictator in Rome.

title: 356 BC

year_label: 316 BCE

text: The Romans, with an eye to capturing Apulia, send an army (led by dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus) to seize the town of Lucera from the Samnites. They are badly beaten in the Battle of Lautulae and the Samnites go on to reach within 32 kilometres of Rome.

title: 316 BC

year_label: 315 BCE

text: The Samnites defeat a Roman army led by dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus at the Battle of Lautulae.

title: 315 BC

text: While the consuls are fighting the Samnites at Tarracina, the Romans elect Gaius Maenius as Dictator with Marcus Foslius Flaccinator as his Magister Equitum (Master-of-Horse, Second-in-Command) and send them into Campania at the head of a large army. When Maenius and Foslius arrive near Capua, the Campanians, hearing about the defeat of the Samnites at Tarracina, start negotiating terms with the Romans; they surrender those who are guilty of the uprising and in turn are reinstated in their alliance with Rome.

title: 314 BC

text: The Samnites take Fregellae in Latium, the Roman dictator Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus marches his army from Rome and moves to retake it, but the Samnites leave at night; Visolus places a garrison in the city.

title: 313 BC

section: Events › By place › Italy

year_label: 312 BCE

text: The Second Samnite War continues: there are rumours of a mobilisation of the Etruscans; since the consul Marcus Valerius Maximus Corvus is campaigning in Samnium and his consular colleague Publius Decius Mus is to ill to lead an army, the people appoint Gaius Sulpicius Longus as dictator. Sulpicius appoints Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus as his Magister Equitum (Second-in-command). Sulpicius ' mission is to defend against the Etruscan invasion which never materialize; Sulpicius and Brutus remain in camp at Rome until the end of the campaigning season.

title: 312 BC

year_label: 217 BCE

text: Gaius Flaminius' supporters in the Senate begin to lose power to the more aristocratic factions as the Romans fear Hannibal is about to besiege their city. The Senate appoint Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as dictator.

title: 217 BC

year_label: 175 BCE

text: Quintus Caecilius Metellus, Roman consul and dictator (b. c. 250 BC)

title: 175 BC

year_label: 81 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Sulla is appointed dictator, executes his political enemies in a series of proscriptions, and implements aristocratic reforms to the Roman government.

title: 81 BC

year_label: 79 BCE

text: Sulla renounces his dictatorship.

title: 79 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman republic

year_label: 49 BCE

date: October

text: October – Caesar is appointed Dictator in Rome.

title: 49 BC

section: Events › By place and Date › Roman Republic

year_label: 45 BCE

text: Caesar is named dictator for life.

title: 45 BC

year_label: 44 BCE

date: March 15

text: March 15 (the Ides of March) – Julius Caesar, dictator of Rome, is assassinated by a group of senators, amongst them Gaius Cassius Longinus, Marcus Junius Brutus, and Caesar's Massilian naval commander, Decimus Brutus.

title: 44 BC


slug: roman-egypt

label: Roman Egypt

description: Roman province in Egypt (30 BCE–641 CE)

year_label: 30 BCE

section: Health & Medicine

text: The Revolt of Thebes (c. 30–29 BC) outbreaks in Egypt immediately after Octavian's victory. Followed by a series of Egyptian resistances, military conflicts and revolts, the following centuries.

title: 30 BC

section: Events › By place › Egypt

year_label: 24 BCE

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Augustus founds the city of Nicopolis in Egypt to commemorate his final victory over Mark Antony.

title: 24 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: The Diaspora Revolt erupts almost simultaneously across various Jewish Diaspora communities in the empire's east, including Egypt, Libya and Cyprus.

title: AD 115

text: The Jewish Diaspora Revolt is quelled, likely by autumn 117, though unrest may have persisted in Egypt until early 118. Its suppression results in the near-complete expulsion of Jews from Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and several regions of Egypt.

title: AD 117

text: Minor uprisings occur in Roman Egypt against Roman rule.

title: AD 153

text: Maximinus Daza persecutes the Christians of Egypt, many of whom take refuge in the desert. In time, this refuge leads to the monastic life. In these monasteries, Coptic writing develops, supporting the propagation of Christian texts.

title: 305

date: July 21

text: July 21 – An earthquake and tsunami devastate Crete and Alexandria and affects Italy, Greece, and Palestine.

title: AD 365

section: Science & Discovery

date: September 11

text: September 11 – Egypt adopts the Gregorian calendar; replacing the Coptic/Alexandrian calendar (based on the ancient Egyptian calendar) which had been the official calendar since the Roman period.

title: 1875

section: Events › September


slug: roman-emperor

label: Roman Emperor

year_label: 63 BCE

section: Births

date: September 23

text: September 23 – Augustus, first Roman Emperor (d. AD 14)

title: 63 BC

year_label: 27 BCE

date: January 16

text: January 16 – Octavian formally returns full power to the Senate; they give him the titles of Princeps and Augustus. He accepts this honor, having declined the alternative title of Romulus, thus becoming first Roman emperor.

title: 27 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic/Empire

year_label: 12 CE

date: August 31

text: August 31 – Caligula, Roman emperor (d. 41 AD)

title: 10s

section: Births › 12 AD

year_label: 14 CE

date: August 19

text: August 19 – Augustus, the first Roman emperor, dies and is declared to be a god.

title: 10s

section: Events › 14 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 15 CE

text: In Rome, the election of magistrates passes from the people to the Emperor and the Senate.

title: 10s

section: Events › 15 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 37 CE

date: March 18

text: March 18 – The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius's will, and proclaims Caligula as Roman Emperor, nullifying the joint claim of Tiberius Gemellus. Caligula's attempt to have himself deified creates friction between himself and the Senate.

title: 30s

section: Events › 37 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 39 CE

text: Tigellinus, minister and favorite of the later Roman emperor Nero, is banished for adultery with Caligula's sisters.

title: 30s

section: Events › 39 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 70 CE

section: Culture & Society

text: Later Roman emperor Domitian marries Domitia Longina.

title: AD 70

text: Antoninus Pius succeeds Hadrian as Roman Emperor, and asks the Senate to confer divine honors for Hadrian.

title: AD 138

text: Marcus Aurelius becomes sole Roman Emperor upon the death of Lucius Verus.

title: AD 169

date: February 4

text: February 4 – Emperor Septimius Severus, having fallen ill, dies in Eboracum (modern-day York) while on campaign in Britain after an 18-year reign. He is later deified by the Senate. His sons Caracalla and Geta succeed him as joint Roman emperors.

title: 211

date: April 8

text: April 8 – Caracalla is assassinated by his soldiers near Edessa. Marcus Opellius Macrinus, head of the Praetorian Guard, declares himself Roman emperor.

title: 217

text: Philip the Arab is recognized by the Roman Senate as the new Roman Emperor with the honorific Augustus. He nominates his son Philippus, age 6, with the title of Caesar and makes him heir to the throne; gives his brother Priscus supreme power (rector Orientis) in the Eastern provinces; and begins construction of the city of Shahba (Syria) in the province of his birth.

title: 244

text: In Rome, Hostilian, son of Decius, succeeds his father, while Trebonianus Gallus is proclaimed Emperor by the troops. Gallus accepts him as co-emperor, but an outbreak of plague strikes the city, and kills Hostilian.

title: 251

text: The legions who have campaigned against the Goths on the Danube elect Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus as new emperor. He advances on Rome along the Flaminian Way, to meet his opponent emperor Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus. For the most part, generals in the border regions are proclaimed emperor by their armies to halt the invasion of Germanic tribes.

title: 253

section: Crime & Justice

text: Postumus, governor of Gaul, declares himself Emperor, and continues to rule the Gallic Empire until 269, when he is killed by his soldiers.

title: 259

text: Marcus Claudius Tacitus, future Roman Emperor, is consul in Rome.

title: 273

text: Florianus becomes Roman Emperor with the support of the Senate, but a general in the east, Marcus Aurelius Probus, usurps power against him. Florianus breaks off his campaign against the Goths and marches east from the Bosporus with support from the Roman legions in Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy.

title: 276

text: Probus enters Rome, to have his position as Emperor ratified by the Senate.

title: 277

date: October 28

text: October 28 – Battle of the Milvian Bridge: Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, becoming the only Roman emperor in the West. Prior to the battle, he reportedly has a vision of a cross (labarum) with the phrase "in hoc signo vinces" ("In this sign you shall conquer"). This encourages him to convert to Christianity.

title: 312

text: Constans I, Roman emperor (d. 350)

title: 320

date: May 22

text: May 22 – Constantine the Great, first Christian Roman emperor of the Western Empire (312–324), and of the Roman Empire (324–337), dies in Achyron, near Nicomedia, at age 65, after he is baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia.

title: 337

date: January 11

text: January 11 – Theodosius I, Roman Emperor (d. 395)

title: 347

date: February 11

text: February 11 – Constans I, Roman Emperor;

title: 350

date: August 11

text: August 11 – Claudius Silvanus, accused of treason, proclaims himself Roman Emperor. After 28 days, Ursicinus arrives from Rome and has Silvanus murdered.

title: 355

date: November

text: November – Constantius II, Roman Emperor (b. 317)

title: 361

date: June 26

text: June 26 – Battle of Samarra: Julian is mortally wounded in a skirmish and dies from a wound received during the fighting near Samarra (Iraq). Jovian, general of the Guard, succeeds him and is proclaimed Emperor by the troops.

title: 363

date: September 28

text: September 28 – Procopius revolts and bribes two legions passing by Constantinople. He proclaims himself Emperor, and takes control of Thrace and Bithynia.

title: AD 365

date: September 9

text: September 9 – Honorius, Roman Emperor (d. 423)

title: 384

text: Avitus, Western Roman Emperor (approximate date)

title: 385

text: Battle of the Save: Emperor Theodosius I defeats Magnus Maximus near Emona (modern Slovenia). Theodosius is in command of an army including Goths, Huns and Alans. Valentinian II, now 17, is restored as Roman Emperor.

title: 388

text: Flavius Marcian, Roman Emperor (d. 457)

title: 392

text: Petronius Maximus, Western Roman Emperor (approximate date)

title: 396

date: April 10

text: April 10 – Theodosius II, Roman emperor (d. 450)

title: 401

text: Roman Civil war of 407–415:Constantine III, a general (magister militum), declares himself Roman emperor. To extend his dominion over Gaul and Spain, he takes practically all the Roman garrisons from Britain and crosses the English Channel. Constantine occupies Arles and establishes tenuous authority over Gaul, sharing control with marauding "barbarians". This is generally seen as the beginning of Rome's withdrawal from Britain.

title: 407

date: May 1

text: May 1 – Arcadius, Roman emperor

title: 408

text: August 15 – Honorius, Roman Emperor (b. 384)

title: 423

text: Julius Nepos, Western Roman Emperor (d. 480)

title: 430

text: July 28 – Theodosius II, Roman Emperor (b. 401)

title: 450

text: July 9 – Avitus is proclaimed Roman emperor at Toulouse, and later recognised by the Gallic chiefs in Viernum (near Arles).

title: 455

text: January 27 – Flavius Marcian, Roman emperor (b. 392)

title: 457

text: Julius Nepos, Western Roman Emperor

title: 480

text: November 27 – Battle of Cortenuova: Frederick II defeats the forces of the Lombard League; about 5,000 Lombards are captured. Frederick makes a triumphal entry into the allied city of Cremona in the manner of an ancient Roman emperor, with the captured carroccio (later sent to the commune of Rome), and an elephant. During the winter campaign, Frederick captures the Piedmontese cities of Lodi, Novara, Vercelli, Chieri, and Savona.

title: 1237


slug: roman-empire

label: Roman Empire

description: period of Ancient Rome following the Republic

year_label: 717 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: 717 BC—Roman legend marks this as the date that Romulus ended his rule. Interregnum starts.

title: 710s BC

section: Events and trends

text: Augustus' first census of the Roman Empire (formerly the Roman Republic) reports a total of 4,063,000 citizens.

title: 27 BC

year_label: 25 BCE

text: Estimation: Rome, capital of the Roman Empire, becomes the largest city in the world, taking the lead from Chang'an, capital of China.

title: 25 BC

year_label: 23 BCE

text: The Nubians, led by queen Kandake Amanirenas, take the initiative against the Roman Empire, and attack the Roman province of Egypt moving towards Elephantine.

title: 23 BC

section: Religion & Belief

text: Augustus relinquishes the position of consul, retains that of tribune of Rome, and assumes that of Princeps, or "First Citizen." (see Roman Empire).

title: 23 BC

year_label: 22 BCE

text: The Roman governor of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, marches up the Nile with legions XXII Deiotariana and III Cyrenaica, and destroys the Nubian capital of Napata.

title: 22 BC

year_label: 19 BCE

text: The Cantabrians, living on the northernmost coast of Spain, are brought under Roman control. The region is completely subdued until 16 BC.

title: 19 BC

year_label: 17 BCE

text: Arminius, Germanic chieftain who defeated the Romans at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (d. AD 21)

title: 17 BC

year_label: 16 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Noricum is incorporated into the Roman Empire.

title: 16 BC

year_label: 11 BCE

text: Battle of Arbalo: Roman forces under Augustus's stepson Nero Claudius Drusus beat off a German ambush.

title: 11 BC

text: Battle of the Lupia River: Roman forces under Augustus's stepson Nero Claudius Drusus win a victory in Germania.

title: 11 BC

year_label: 10 BCE

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: The Romans build a bridge across the Rhine near Bonn (approximate date).

title: 10 BC

year_label: 9 BCE

text: Pannonia is incorporated into the Roman Empire as a part of Illyria.

title: 0s BC

section: Events › 9 BC › Roman Empire

year_label: 8 BCE

text: After 20 years, Emperor Augustus initiates his second census of the Roman Empire.

title: 0s BC

section: Events › 8 BC › Germania

text: King Maroboduus becomes ruler of the Marcomanni and fights against the Roman Empire's expansion in Bohemia.

title: 0s BC

section: Events › 8 BC › Roman Empire

year_label: 4 CE

text: AD 4 – A pact of non-aggression and friendship is signed between the Roman Empire, represented by Tiberius, and the German tribe the Cherusci, represented by their King Segimer. Arminius and Flavus, sons of Segimer, are brought into the Roman army as leaders of the auxiliary troops.

title: 0s

section: Events › Roman Empire

year_label: 6 CE

text: AD 6 – Iudaea and Moesia become Roman provinces.

title: 0s

year_label: 13 CE

text: Emperor Augustus initiates his third census of the Roman Empire after 20 years.

title: 10s

section: Events › 13 AD › Roman Empire

text: Augustus' third (and final) 20-year census of the Roman Empire reports a total of 4,973,000 citizens.

title: 10s

year_label: 17 CE

text: Tacfarinas, Numidian deserter from the Roman army, begins a guerrilla war against the Romans. He leads his own Musulamii tribe and a coalition of Berbers, attacking the Limes Tripolitanus, a fortified zone (limes) of the Roman Empire in Africa.

title: 10s

section: Events › 17 AD › Africa

year_label: 18 CE

text: Winter – Germanicus Caesar arrives in Syria, as new commander-in-chief for the Roman East.

title: 10s

section: Events › 18 AD › Syria

year_label: 19 CE

section: Deaths

text: Germanicus Julius Caesar, commander in chief of the Roman legions in the East and beloved by the legionaries, falls ill and dies. On his deathbed he accuses Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.

title: 10s

section: Events › 19 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 20 CE

text: Galba, the future emperor, is a Roman praetor.

title: 20s

section: Events › 20 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 26 CE

text: Emperor Tiberius retires to Capri, leaving the Praetorian Guard under Lucius Aelius Sejanus in charge of the Roman Empire and the city of Rome.

title: 20s

section: Events › 26 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 28 CE

text: The Frisians negotiate a treaty with the Roman Empire at the River Rhine.

title: 20s

section: Events › 28 AD › Germania

year_label: 34 CE

text: Naevius Sutorius Macro gains favour in the Roman Empire by prostituting his wife Ennia Thrasylla to Caligula.

title: 30s

section: Events › 34 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 40 CE

text: Noricum and Mauretania are incorporated into the Roman Empire.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 40

year_label: 43 CE

text: The Romans capture a Brythonic settlement at Kent and rename it Durovernum Cantiacorum (modern Canterbury); and establish a Roman fort to guard the crossing of the Kentish River Stour.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 43

year_label: 44 CE

text: The Isle of Rhodes returns to the Roman Empire.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 44

text: Emperor Claudius returns from his British campaign in triumph, the south-east part of Britannia now held by the Roman Empire, but the war will rage for another decade and a half.

title: 40s

year_label: 45 CE

text: Juvavum (modern Salzburg) is awarded the status of a Roman municipium.

title: 40s

section: Timeline › AD 45

year_label: 50 CE

text: In Judaea, a Roman soldier seizes and burns a Torah scroll. Procurator Cumanus has the culprit beheaded, calming down local Jews and delaying for almost two decades the outbreak of their revolt.

title: 50s

section: Events › 50 AD › Palestine

year_label: 54 CE

text: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo arrives in the East and takes up an assignment as governor of Asia, with a secret brief from Nero and his chief ministers, Seneca and Burrus, to return Armenia to the Roman Empire.

title: 50s

section: Events › 54 AD › Anatolia

text: Envoys from Cilicia come to Rome to accuse their late governor, Cossutianus Capito, of extortion; the Roman Senate is supported in the case by Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus.

title: 50s

text: Romans learn the use of soap from the Gauls (approximate date).

title: 50s

text: The Roxolani are defeated on the Danube by the Romans.

title: AD 60

text: Prasutagus, king of the Iceni (modern East Anglia), dies leaving a will which passes his kingdom to his two daughters and the Roman Empire. The Roman army, however, annexes the kingdom as if conquered, depriving the nobles of their hereditary lands and plundering the land. The king's widow, Boudica, is flogged and forced to watch their daughters publicly raped. Roman financiers, including Seneca the Younger, call in their loans.

title: AD 60

text: Prasutagus, king of the Iceni (modern East Anglia), dies leaving a will which passes his kingdom to his two daughters and the Roman Empire. The Roman army however annexes the kingdom as if conquered, depriving the nobles of their hereditary lands and plundering the land. The king's widow, Boudica, is flogged and forced to watch their daughters publicly raped. Roman financiers, including Seneca the Younger, call in their loans.

title: AD 61

text: October – The Jewish Revolt commences against the Roman Empire. The Zealots lay siege to Jerusalem and annihilate the Roman garrison (a cohort of Legio III Cyrenaica). The Sicarii capture the fortress of Masada overlooking the Dead Sea.

title: AD 66

text: Final year that Tacitus records Annals, a written history of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 68

text: Romans make a punitive expedition against the Garamantes – they are forced to have an official relationship with the Roman Empire.

title: AD 70

text: The Romans establish a fortress at York (Eboracum), as a base for their northern forces. Initially established solely for Legio IX Hispana, it expands later to include public housing, baths and temples.

title: AD 71

text: Mithraism begins to spread throughout the Roman Empire.

title: AD 71

text: The Romans lay siege to Masada, a desert fortress held by the Sicarii.

title: AD 72

text: The Black Forest region is reattached to the Roman Empire.

title: AD 74

text: The Romans conquer the Ordovices, located in present-day northern Wales, as well as the Silures.

title: AD 78

text: Gnaeus Julius Agricola raises a fleet, and encircles the Celtic tribes beyond the Forth; the Caledonians rise in great numbers against the Romans. They attack the camp of Legio IX Hispana at night, but Agricola sends his cavalry in, and puts them to flight.

title: AD 82

text: Possible date of the Battle of Mons Graupius (AD 83 or 84): According to Tacitus, 10,000 Britons and 360 Romans are killed.

title: AD 83

text: Dacians under Decebalus engage in two wars against the Romans from this year to AD 88 or 89.

title: AD 85

text: The First Dacian War ends: Decebalus becomes a client king of Rome, he receives money, craftsmen and war machines to protect the borders (limes) of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 88

text: Nerva is declared emperor by the Roman Senate as the new ruler of the Roman Empire. He recalls citizens exiled by Domitian; this is the beginning of the Era of the Five Good Emperors. The Antonines Dynasty starts.

title: AD 96

text: Emissaries of the Kushan Empire reach the Roman Empire.

title: AD 99

text: Bricks become the primary building material in the Roman Empire.

title: AD 100

text: Emperor Trajan starts an expedition against Dacia, exceeding the limits of the Roman Empire set by Augustus.

title: AD 101

text: The Roman Empire has more than 75,000 km mi of roads.

title: AD 110

text: The kingdom of Osroene becomes a vassal kingdom of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 114

text: Emperor Trajan completes his invasion of Parthia by capturing the cities of Seleucia, Babylon, Ctesiphon and Susa, marking the high-water mark of the Roman Empire's eastern expansion.

title: AD 116

text: Emperor Trajan falls seriously ill and dies of a stroke at Selinus in Cilicia, age 63, while en route from Mesopotamia to Italy, leaving the Roman Empire at its maximal territorial extent.

title: AD 117

text: Osroene is returned to native rule by the Roman Empire.

title: AD 118

text: Emperor Hadrian orders that a 73-mile (117-kilometer) wall be built to mark the northern Roman Empire while personally visiting the area. Hadrian's Wall, as it comes to be known, is intended to keep the Caledonians, Picts and other tribes at bay.

title: AD 122

text: Antinous becomes Hadrian's beloved companion on his journeys through the Roman Empire.

title: AD 124

text: Roman bakeries produce dozens of bread varieties, and the Romans distribute free bread for the poor.

title: AD 128

text: Bar Kokhba revolt: The messianic, charismatic Jewish leader Simon bar Kokhba starts a war of liberation for Judea against the Romans, which is eventually crushed (in 135) by Emperor Hadrian; Rabbi Akiva is supportive of the rebellion.

title: AD 132

text: A Jewish diaspora begins, as Emperor Hadrian bars Jews from Jerusalem, and has survivors of the massacre dispersed across the Roman Empire. Many join Mediterranean ports.

title: AD 135

text: Municipal doctors are named throughout the Roman Empire.

title: AD 142

text: In Roman Empire, the Antonine Wall in Britain is retaken by Roman legions.

title: AD 160

text: Ctesiphon is captured by the Romans, but returns to the Parthians after the end of the war.

title: AD 164

text: Antonine Plague: A pandemic breaks out in Rome, after the Roman army returns from Parthia. The plague significantly depopulates the Roman Empire and China.

title: AD 165

text: A plague (possibly small pox) comes from the East and spreads throughout the Roman Empire, lasting for roughly twenty years.

title: AD 166

text: The Marcomanni tribe wages war against the Romans at Aquileia. They destroy aqueducts and irrigation conduits. Marcus Aurelius repels the invaders, ending the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) that has kept the Roman Empire free of conflict since the days of Emperor Augustus.

title: AD 167

text: Marcomannic Wars: Germanic tribes invade the frontiers of the Roman Empire, specifically the provinces of Raetia and Moesia.

title: AD 169

text: Marcus Aurelius orders humane treatment for Christians and slaves throughout the Roman Empire.

title: AD 170

text: Armenia and Mesopotamia become protectorates of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 171

text: Emperor Marcus Aurelius crosses the Danube with an expeditionary force. He subdues the Marcomanni and their allies and then, in a pact signed with the Germanic tribes, he imports them into the Roman Empire to occupy areas that have been depopulated by the plague.

title: AD 172

text: Marcus Aurelius drives the Marcomanni over the Danube and reinforces the border. To repopulate and rebuild a devastated Pannonia, Rome allows the first German colonists to enter territory controlled by the Roman Empire.

title: AD 179

text: 180–395 – Late Empire in Rome.

title: AD 180

text: June 1 – Septimius Severus enters the capital, and has Julianus put to death. He replaces the Praetorian Guard with a 15,000-man force from the Danubian legions, and gains control of the Roman Empire, beginning the Severan dynasty.

title: AD 193

text: Septimius Severus, who had spared the Senate at the beginning of his reign, now excludes it from controlling the Roman Empire by declaring a military dictatorship.

title: AD 197

text: Severus launches a campaign in Africa; Legio III Augusta under Quintus Anicius Faustus fights a guerrilla war against the Garamantes along the Limes Tripolitanus. They capture several settlements such as Cydamus, Gholaia and their capital Garama, 600 km south of Lepcis Magna. The province of Numidia is enlarged: the Romans annex Castellum Dimmidi, Gemellae and Vescera.

title: 202

text: Eboracum becomes the capital of Britannia Inferior, a northern province of the Roman Empire.

title: 211

text: The edict of Emperor Caracalla (Constitutio Antoniniana) extends Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire, with the exception of a limited group that may include Egyptians. The Jewish people are among those who receive citizenship. All free women in the Empire are given the same rights as Roman women.

title: 212

text: The kingdom of Osroene becomes a province of the Roman Empire.

title: 214

text: Alexander Severus succeeds Elagabalus. He is only 13 years old; his mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, governs the Roman Empire with the help of Domitius Ulpianus and a council composed of 16 senators.

title: 222

text: A merchant from the Roman Empire, called "Qin Lun" by the Chinese, arrives in Jiaozhi (modern Hanoi), and is taken to see King Sun Quan of Eastern Wu, who requests him to make a report on his native country and people. He is given an escort for the return trip, including a present of ten male and ten female "blackish-colored dwarfs." However, the officer in charge of the Chinese escort dies, and Qin Lun has to continue his journey home alone.

title: 226

text: Emperor Alexander Severus decides that Thessaly should be a separate province from Macedonia. He increases taxes, in order to maintain the war against the Sassanids, and strengthen the defenses of the Roman Empire.

title: 230

text: Emperor Alexander Severus accompanies his mother Julia Mamaea to Syria, and campaigns against the Persians. Military command rests in the hands of his generals, but his presence gives additional weight to the empire's policy.

title: 231

text: Roman–Persian Wars: Emperor Alexander Severus launches a three-pronged counterattack against the Persian forces of King Ardashir I, who have invaded Mesopotamia. However, the Roman army advancing through Armenia is halted. Alexander gives the order to march to the capital at Ctesiphon, but the Romans are defeated, and withdraw to Syria. The result is an acceptance of the status quo, and after heavy losses on both sides, a truce is signed.

title: 232

text: The Goths, coming from Ukraine, cross the Danube and devastate the Roman Empire up to the border with Anatolia.

title: 238

text: The Roman Empire is threatened on several fronts at the same time. Africa revolts and tribes in northwest Germania, under the name of the Franks, are raiding the Rhine frontier.

title: 240

text: Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus becomes praetorian prefect and de facto ruler of the Roman Empire.

title: 241

text: Rome becomes 1,000 years old. The 1,000th anniversary is commemorated with the Ludi Saeculares festivals, celebrated throughout the Roman Empire.

title: 247

text: The Roman Empire continues the celebration of the 1,000th anniversary of Rome, with the ludi saeculares, organized by Philip the Arab.

title: 248

text: An epidemic begins in Ethiopia, moves into Egypt and the Roman colonies in North Africa, and spreads through the Roman Empire (named the Plague of Cyprian, after St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage).

title: 250

text: January 3 – Decian persecution of Christians is initiated when Emperor Decius orders everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the gods of religion in ancient Rome. On January 20, Pope Fabian becomes one of the first martyrs of this persecution.

title: 250

text: A 15-year plague begins in the Roman Empire.

title: 251

text: The Goths invade Asia Minor. Dacia is lost for the Roman Empire, and the Goths appear at the walls of Thessalonica.

title: 256

text: In Bavaria the Limes Germanicus (Upper Raetian Limes) along the river Iller is abandoned by the Romans.

title: 257

text: The Franks, who invaded the Roman Empire near Cologne in 257, reach Tarraco in Hispania.

title: 259

text: Emperor Gallienus tries twice to crush the usurper Postumus, but on the first occasion Aureolus, commander of the elite cavalry, carelessly lets him escape. The second time, Gallienus sustains an arrow wound and has to break off his siege of a Gallic town where Postumus has holed up. He makes no other serious attempt to overcome his rival, instead devoting his attention to the political and military problems in the Danube and eastern parts of the Roman Empire.

title: 265

text: Victorinus is declared emperor of the Gallic Empire by the legions at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), following the murders of his predecessors. He is recognized by the provinces of Gaul and Britain, but Hispania might have reunited with the Roman Empire.

title: 268

text: Claudius dies of plague in Sirmium while preparing to fight the Vandals and Sarmatians, who have invaded Pannonia. He is succeeded by his brother Quintillus, who briefly holds power over the Roman Empire.

title: 270

text: Battle of Châlons: The Emperor Aurelian invades Gaul to campaign against the Gallic Empire (Gaul and Britain). In the Catalaunian Plains, the Romano-Gallic Emperor Tetricus I surrenders to Aurelian and leaves his army without an emperor. The Gallic army is then crushed by Aurelian in a major battle. With the conquests of the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire, the Roman Empire is united again. However, the heavy losses incurred by the Gallic forces compromises the Rhine frontier.

title: 274

text: Probus resettles the Germanic tribes in the devastated provinces of the Roman Empire. He adopts the titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus.

title: 278

text: Piracy along the coast of Lycia et Pamphylia: The Romans besiege the city of Cremna (Pisidia) and kill the Isaurian robber Lydius.

title: 278

text: Roman territory is under constant threat of raids from Franks. The cities in Gaul are reinforced with defensive walls.

title: 280

text: Maximian is sent to pacify Gaul, where the Bagaudae, a band of peasants, are revolting against the Roman Empire.

title: 285

text: Landowners dominate the Roman Empire, and enjoy the title of senator, which exempts them from the crushing taxes imposed on the rest of the population. The Senate has lost all its power and the landowners almost never attend Senate sessions. Members of municipal senates (curiales or decuriones) are charged with the responsibility of collecting taxes and paying arrears; smaller landowners are held responsible for providing recruits for the Roman army, and with keeping wastelands under cultivation.

title: 305

text: November 11 – The Conference of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, Galerius recalls Diocletian briefly from retirement, and they convene with Maximian. Diocletian persuades Maximian to return to retirement, and he and Galerius declare Maxentius a public enemy. Licinius is proclaimed Augustus of the west, while rival contender Constantine I is again declared Caesar.

title: 308

text: April 30 – On his deathbed, Emperor Galerius declares religious freedom and issues the Edict of Serdica, ending the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the eastern half of the Roman Empire.

title: AD 311

text: February 3 – Edict of Milan: Constantine the Great and co-emperor Licinius meet at a conference in Mediolanum (modern Milan). They proclaim a policy of religious freedom for all, ending the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire and returning property confiscated from Christians. The edict is posted in Nicomedia on June 13.

title: 313

text: Crucifixion is abolished as punishment in the Roman Empire.

title: 315

text: Emperor Constantine the Great decrees that rural slaves can only be sold in the province where they reside, in order to resolve the shortage of labour in the Roman Empire.

title: 327

text: July 5 – Constantine's Bridge, built over the Danube between Sucidava (Corabia, Romania) and Oescus (Gigen, Bulgaria), is officially opened by the Roman architect Theophilus Patricius.

title: 328

text: Emperor Constantine the Great vigorously promotes Christianity, confiscating the property and valuables of a number of pagan temples throughout the Roman Empire.

title: 331

text: The military successes of Emperor Constantine I result in most of Dacia being reconquered by the Roman Empire.

title: 336

text: May 22 – Constantine the Great, first Christian Roman emperor of the Western Empire (312–324), and of the Roman Empire (324–337), dies in Achyron, near Nicomedia, at age 65, after he is baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia.

title: 337

text: May 22 – Constantine the Great, emperor of the Roman Empire, Orthodox priest and saint

title: 337

text: The Romans, allied with the Goths, arrive in the north of the Roman Empire to protect the Danube frontier.

title: 338

text: Non-Christians are persecuted by the Roman Empire as pagans.

title: 338

text: Constantine II, emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire (Britain, Gaul, the Rhine provinces and Iberia), crosses the Alps and attacks the army of his brother Constans I, emperor of the central part of the Roman Empire (Upper Danube, Italy and middle Africa). They clash at Aquileia in northern Italy. Constantine is killed in a skirmish by an ambush of Constans' troops.

title: 340

text: Constans is left sole ruler of the Western part of the Roman Empire, with his other brother, Constantius II, emperor of the Eastern portion.

title: 340

text: March 15 – Emperor Constantius II elevates his 25-year-old cousin Constantius Gallus to Caesar at Sirmium (Pannonia). He arranges a marriage with his sister Constantina, and puts him in charge of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire.

title: 351

text: Battle of Mons Seleucus: Emperor Constantius II defeats the usurper Magnentius, who commits suicide in Gaul in order to avoid capture. Constantius becomes sole emperor, and reunifies the Roman Empire.

title: 353

text: The Lentienses, a Germanic tribe, are fined by the Roman commander Arbetio under Constantius II for several incursions against the Roman Empire.

title: 355

text: February 19 – Emperor Constantius II issues a decree closing all pagan temples in the Roman Empire, and ordering the banishment once again of the anti-Arian patriarch of Alexandria, Athanasius. He tries to have him arrested during a vigil service, but Athanasius flees to the Nitrian desert in Upper Egypt.

title: 356

text: July – Emperor Constantius II convenes the Council of Rimini, to resolve the crisis over Arianism in the Church. Some 400 bishops of the Western portion of the Roman Empire attend, while the Eastern bishops simultaneously hold a meeting at Seleucia. Given Saint Jerome's comment that, "The whole world groaned in astonishment to find itself Arian", it appears to have failed. Pope Liberius rejects the new creed at Rimini.

title: 359

text: December 11 – Julian becomes sole emperor of the Roman Empire; he rules from Constantinople, and tries to restore paganism. Constantius II is buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles.

title: 361

text: May 29 – Battle of Ctesiphon: Julian reaches the vicinity of the strongly fortified capital Ctesiphon. King Shapur II in charge of a large Persian army adopts a scorched earth policy, leaving the Romans desperately short of supplies.

title: 363

text: February 26 – Valentinian I is proclaimed Emperor by officers of the Roman army at Nicaea in Bithynia. He addresses the soldiers (who threaten to riot) in a speech. He founds the Valentinianic dynasty and rules the Western portion of the Roman Empire, from Caledonia (Scotland) to the Rhine frontier, ensuring it a few years of relative security. He settles in Lutetia (Paris) and establishes a militia to defend the region.

title: 364

text: March 28 – Valens, brother of Valentinian I, is appointed co-emperor (Augustus) in the palace of Hebdomon (Turkey). He rules the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire, from the Danube to the Persian border, and begins the first anti-pagan persecutions.

title: 364

text: A law of Valentinian I and Valens bans marriages between Romans and barbarians under penalty of death.

title: 370

text: The Persian Empire attains the zenith of its power under King Shapur II as the Romans renew their war against Persia. Hostilities will continue for the next 5 years.

title: 371

text: In Africa, the dissident Berber prince Firmus is delivered to the Romans by his brother Gildon.

title: 375

text: The Greuthungi, led by Alatheus and Saphrax, displaced by the predations of the Huns and Alans, request asylum within the Roman Empire. They are refused. The Roman frontier forces stretched to the breaking point, they slip across the Danube and unite with Fritigern. With their situation critical and desperately short of food, discontent is rising amongst the Goths.

title: 376

text: Battle of the Willows: The Romans abandon the guerrilla strategy and are attacked by the Goths. The battle is indecisive but both sides suffer heavy casualties. The only Roman army available to face the Goths is no longer a fighting force. Richomeres withdraws his troops south of Marcianople (Bulgaria).

title: 377

text: Rome's enemies (the Germans, Sarmatians and Huns) are taken into Imperial service; as a consequence, barbarian leaders begin to play an increasingly active role in the Roman Empire.

title: 380

text: King Shapur III signs the Peace of Acilisene with Theodosius I. Armenia is divided in two kingdoms and becomes a vassal state of the Roman Empire and Persia. The friendly relations survive for 36 years.

title: 384

text: Emperor Theodosius I signs a peace treaty with King Shapur III; they divide Armenia into two kingdoms (vassal states). The treaty establishes friendly relations between the Roman Empire and Persia for the next 36 years.

title: 386

text: Peace of Acilisene: King Shapur III signs a treaty with Theodosius I. Armenia is divided in two kingdoms, and becomes a vassal state of the Roman Empire and Persia.

title: 387

text: Frankish invasion of 388: Rebellious Franks led by Marcomer, Sunno and Genobaud invade the Roman Empire with plunder and threaten Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne). A part of the invaders are destroyed by the Romans in the charcoal forest (present-day Belgium). The Roman general Quintines pursues the invaders on Frankish soil and is ambushed. His army is surrounded and defeated by the Franks.

title: 388

text: King Shapur III dies after a reign in which he has partitioned Armenia with the Roman Empire. He is succeeded by his son Bahram IV, who becomes the twelfth Sassanid king of Persia.

title: 388

text: Emperor Theodosius I establishes Christianity as the official state religion. All non-Christian temples in the Roman Empire are closed. The eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta at the Roman Forum is extinguished, and the Vestal Virgins are disbanded.

title: 391

text: Stilicho, Roman general (magister militum), defeats the Visigoths and Huns in Thrace. Emperor Theodosius I permits Alaric to go free on condition he provides, as foederati, military services to the Roman Empire.

title: 392

text: Theodosius I demands the destruction of pagan temples, holy sites, and ancient objects throughout the Roman Empire.

title: 393

text: Late Roman army: The Notitia Dignitatum shows the development of forces in the Roman Empire. By now 200,000 soldiers guard the borders, and a reserve force of 50,000 is available for deployment. Many non-Roman soldiers are from Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Goths, Saxons and Vandals.

title: 394

text: January 17 – Emperor Theodosius I, age 48, dies of a disease involving severe edema in Milan. The Roman Empire is divided for the final time into an eastern and a western half. The Eastern Roman Empire is centered in Constantinople under Arcadius, son of Theodosius, and the Western Roman Empire in Mediolanum under his brother Honorius.

title: 395

text: April 4 – Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, dies in his diocese after 23 years in office, during which he dominated the political life of the Roman Empire.

title: 397

text: An imperial edict obliges Roman landowners with plantations to yield 1/3 of their fields to the "barbarians" who have been settled in the Roman Empire.

title: 398

text: Radagaisus is forced to retreat into the hills of Fiesole. There he tries to escape, but is captured by the Romans.

title: 406

text: End of Roman rule in Britain: After 360 years of occupation, the local regional British-Roman leaders raise their own levies for defence against Saxon sea rovers. They cultivate oysters, having learned the technique from the Romans.

title: 407

text: King Yazdegerd I of Persia maintains cordial relations with the Roman Empire. He becomes an executor of Arcadius' will and is entrusted with the care of the young Theodosius II until he comes of age.

title: 408

text: Attila, age 2, is sent as a child hostage to the court at Rome and in return, the Romans send Flavius Aetius to the Huns.

title: 408

text: September – Rex Alaric I of the Visigoths crosses the Julian Alps with an army of 30,000 men, and marches into the Roman heartland. He lays siege to Rome, and Gothic auxiliaries desert to join Alaric's forces. After much bargaining, the Senate agrees to pay him a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, and 3,000 hides dyed scarlet.

title: 408

text: October 13 – The Vandals, led by King Gunderic, cross the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula. They receive land from the Romans, as foederati, in Baetica (Southern Spain). The Alans occupy lands in Lusitania and the Suebi control parts of Gallaecia.

title: 409

text: According to Zosimus, this is the year when Emperor Honorius sends his Rescript (diplomatic letters) to the Romano-British magistrates, ending Roman rule in Great Britain. However this is likely an example of scribal error. Most recently, David Woods has argued that the account refers instead to Raetia, a Roman province north of Italy.

title: 410

text: King Ataulf leads the Goths into Gaul at the instigation of Honorius, who promises to recognise a Visigothic Kingdom if he defeats the several usurpers who threaten the Roman Empire.

title: AD 411

text: Augustine of Hippo, age 59, begins to write his spiritual book De Civitate Dei (City of God), as a reply to the charge that Christianity was responsible for the decline of the Roman Empire.

title: 413

text: The Visigoths invade the Iberian Peninsula and begin to conquer territory taken previously by the Vandals. King Athaulf and his pregnant wife Galla Placidia leave Gallia Narbonensis; they relocate at Barcelona. Their infant son, Theodosius, dies in infancy, eliminating an opportunity for a Roman-Visigothic line. Athaulf is assassinated in the palace while taking a bath. Sigeric succeeds him, but after a reign of seven days he is also murdered.

title: 415

text: Emperor Honorius bribes Wallia, king of the Visigoths, into regaining Hispania for the Roman Empire. His victory over the Vandals in 416 forces them to retire to Baetica. The Visigothic territory in Gaul now extends from the Garonne to the Loire, and becomes known as the Visigothic Kingdom.

title: 418

text: The Franks conquer new territories in their kingdom and sack the old Roman capital Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier).

title: 421

text: After death of Gamaliel VI, the Sanhedrin is disbanded by the Roman Empire.

title: 425

text: The Roman province of Pannonia Prima is finally assimilated into the Hunnic Empire.

title: 427

text: King Genseric concludes a peace treaty with the Romans, under which the Vandals retain Mauretania and a part of Numidia as foederati (allies under a special treaty) of Rome.

title: 435

text: Winter – Hun and Roman envoys meet at Margum (modern Bosnia and Herzegovina), an important market town on the Sava River. After negotiations, Attila and his brother Bleda, who are present, accept a four-point peace plan. Trading rights between the two states are confirmed and emperor Theodosius II pays an annual tribute of 700 pounds of gold.

title: 439

text: Rechila invades Baetica and conquers the capital Seville. The Romans are driven from the Iberian Peninsula with the exception of the Levante.

title: 441

text: Period of civil war and famine in Britain, caused by rival kingdoms and Pictish invasions; the situation aggravates tensions between Pelagian and Roman factions. Pro-Roman citizens migrate towards Gaul.

title: 443

text: Petronius Maximus, prominent aristocrat, is given the title of Patrician. He becomes the most honored of all non-imperial Romans, and political rival of Flavius Aetius.

title: 445

text: Attila demands in the treaty the evacuation of the territory running from Singidunum (Belgrade, in Serbia) 300 mi km east along the Danube to Novae (Svishtov, in Bulgaria). This depopulated buffer zone deprives the Romans of their natural defensive advantages.

title: 448

text: Barter economy replaces organized trade as Romans and other citizens desert their towns for the countryside, where they will be less vulnerable to barbarian raids (approximate date).

title: 455

text: The Franks conquer the city of Trier. The Frankish Kingdom becomes a military power and gets involved in Roman politics.

title: 459

text: King Genseric, fearing a Roman invasion, tries to negotiate peace with Majorian, who refuses. The Vandals devastate Mauretania and Moorish warriors poison the wells.

title: 460

text: In the Gothic war against Aegidius, Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks, allies with the Roman general Aegidius. This war is ended by the battle near Orléans, where the Visigoths under King Theodoric II are defeated by the Franks, while crossing the Loire River.

title: 463

text: Syagrius, "king of the Romans" (approximate date)

title: 487

text: Summer – The Burgundians, under King Gundobad, cross the Alps and plunder Liguria. Many Romans are taken into captivity.

title: 490

text: Battle of Cotyaeum: The Isaurian rebels are defeated by the Eastern Roman army, under John the Scythian and John the Hunchback (subordinate commanders include the future Justin I). They retreat to their mountain fortresses, and continue guerrilla warfare against the Roman forces until 497.

title: 492

text: Isaurian War: Claudiopolis, ancient city of Cappadocia, is besieged and captured by the Romans. The Isaurians blockade the mountain passes, but John the Hunchback (John Gibbo) wins an overwhelming victory against the rebels.

title: 493

text: February 25 – Odoacer surrenders Ravenna after a 3-year siege, and agrees to a mediated peace with Theodoric the Great, who steadily consolidates his rule and provides security for the local population. His achievement is to manage the transformation of Italy from being the center of a fractured Roman Empire to a successful and independent Ostrogothic Kingdom.

title: 493

text: Emperor Anastasius I gives formal recognition to the Ostrogoth king Theodoric the Great, as his representative (viceroy) in Italy. He sends the imperial standard to Ravenna. Theodoric respects the agreement and allows Roman citizens within the Ostrogothic Kingdom to be subject to Roman law.

title: 497

text: February 13 – Emperor Justinian I appoints a commission (including the jurist Tribonian) to codify all laws of the Roman Empire that are still in force from Hadrian to the current date; this becomes the Corpus Juris Civilis.

title: 528

text: Tribonian becomes quaestor sacri palatii and chief editor of the compilation of the old Roman lawyers' writings.

title: 530

text: Cassiodorus, former Roman statesman, establishes a monastery at his estate in Italy. The Vivarium "monastery school" is for highly educated and sophisticated men, who copy sacred and secular manuscripts, intending for this to be their sole occupation (approximate date).

title: 540

text: Gregory I begins a vigorous program of rebuilding aqueducts and restoring Rome. He feeds the citizens with doles of grain, as under Roman imperial rule.

title: 590

text: Nestorian missionaries build the Daqin Pagoda in Chang'an (Shaanxi). Daqin is the name for the Roman Empire or the Near East.

title: 640

text: Council of Birr: The northern part of Ireland accepts the Roman calculations for celebrating Easter. At this synod Adomnán, abbot of Iona (Scotland), promulgates his Cáin Adomnáin ("Law of the Innocents").

title: 697


slug: roman-forum

label: Roman Forum

description: Ancient Roman center of the city, a landmark of Rome, Italy

year_label: 497 BCE

section: Culture & Society

date: December 17

text: December 17 – Consecration of the newly constructed Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum, and Saturnalia festival first celebrated.

title: 497 BC

section: Events › By place › Rome

year_label: 46 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

date: April 20

text: April 20 – Cicero, in Rome, writes to Varro "If our voices are no longer heard in the Senate and in the Forum, let us follow the example of the ancient sages and serve our country through our writings, concentrating on questions of ethics and constitutional law."

title: 46 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

year_label: 44 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

date: March 20

text: March 20 – Caesar's funeral is held. Marcus Antony gives a eulogy and in his speech he makes accusations of murder and ensures a permanent breach with the conspirators against Caesar. He snatches Caesar's bloody tunic and purple toga to show the crowd the stab wounds; the citizens tear apart the forum and cremate their Caesar on a makeshift pyre. Antony becomes the highest ranking politician in Rome.

title: 44 BC

year_label: 40 BCE

section: Conflict & Security

text: Sextus' fleet raids the ports of Puteoli and Ostia. The populace hold the Triumvirs responsible for prolonging the war, provoking a riot on the Forum. Octavian, with the Praetorian Guard, goes to intercept the riot, and only escapes with his life because Antony summons troops to rescue his junior colleague.

title: 40 BC

year_label: 69 CE

date: January 15

text: January 15 – Galba and his adopted son Piso are murdered by the Praetorian Guard on the Roman Forum.

title: AD 69

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

year_label: 71 CE

text: Titus is awarded with a triumph, accompanied by Vespasian and his brother Titus Flavius Domitian. In the parade are Jewish prisoners and treasures of the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Pentateuch. The leader of the Zealots, Simon Bar Giora, is lashed and strangled in the Forum.

title: AD 71

text: An arch dedicated to Septimius Severus is erected near the Forum.

title: 203

date: November 20

text: November 20 – The Augusti Diocletian and Maximian reunite in Rome to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Diocletian's accession, which is now treated as a joint anniversary for both emperors. A series of columns in the Roman Forum and a triumphal arch are dedicated to the emperors. The two emperors also agree on a plan of abdication.

title: 303

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Bereft of his father's support, Maxentius increasingly presents himself as the Conservator Urbis Suae (Preserver of His Own City). Construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (or Basilica Nova), the largest building in the Roman Forum, is begun.

title: 308

section: Religion & Belief

text: Emperor Theodosius I establishes Christianity as the official state religion. All non-Christian temples in the Roman Empire are closed. The eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta at the Roman Forum is extinguished, and the Vestal Virgins are disbanded.

title: 391


slug: roman-law

label: Roman law

description: legal system of ancient Rome and later the Roman and Byzantine Empire

year_label: 55 BCE

text: Summer – Julius Caesar defeats the Usipetes and the Tencteri, two Germanic tribes who have been driven across the Rhine River by the Suebi. He spreads Roman law and order, and makes the whole country as far as the Channel accessible to trade.

title: 55 BC

year_label: 52 CE

section: Health & Medicine

text: In Rome, a law prohibits the execution of old and crippled slaves.

title: 50s

section: Events › 52 AD › Roman Empire

text: A Roman law bans female gladiators.

title: 202

section: Science & Discovery

text: The jurist Gregorius, at the court of Emperor Diocletian, produces the Gregorian Code, the first codification of Roman law (approximate date).

title: 292

text: The jurist Hermogenianus, at the court of Diocletian, produces the Hermogenian Code. This new codification of Roman law complements the Gregorian Code of c. 292.

title: 295

text: Emperor Theodosius II starts to reform the Codex Theodosianus in Constantinople. He establishes a committee to codify all Roman laws. All funds raised by Jews to support schools have to be turned over to the state treasury.

title: 429

date: February 15

text: February 15 – The Codex Theodosianus, a collection of edicts of Roman law, is published.

title: 438

section: Events › By place › Byzantium

text: Emperor Anastasius I gives formal recognition to the Ostrogoth king Theodoric the Great, as his representative (viceroy) in Italy. He sends the imperial standard to Ravenna. Theodoric respects the agreement and allows Roman citizens within the Ostrogothic Kingdom to be subject to Roman law.

title: 497

section: Events › By place › Byzantine Empire

date: February 2

text: February 2 – King Alaric II issues the "Lex Romana Visigothorum" or Breviary of Alaric, an abstract of Roman laws and imperial decrees, compiled by a commission appointed to provide a law code for Alaric's Roman subjects. The "Lex Romana" will be the standard for justice in the Visigothic realm.

title: 506

section: Events › By place › Europe

date: April 7

text: April 7 – Emperor Justinian I issues the Codex Justinianus (Code of Civil Laws), reformulating Roman law in an effort to control his unruly people (see 532).

title: 529

date: December 15

text: December 15 – Emperor Justinian I selects a second commission to excerpt and codify the writings of the jurists on Roman law. This becomes the Digest (Pandects).

title: 530

text: King Recceswinth draws up the Liber Judiciorum at Toledo, a Visigothic code based on Roman law, that establishes equality between Goths and Hispano-Romans without regard to racial or cultural differences.

title: 654


slug: roman-legion

label: Roman legion

description: Roman military unit

year_label: 217 BCE

text: Gaius Flaminius is re-elected consul with Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, in what is considered to be a rebuke of the Senate's prosecution of the war. Flaminius raises new legions and marches north to meet the Carthaginian general Hannibal.

title: 217 BC

year_label: 214 BCE

text: Roman legions led by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus defeat Hanno's Carthaginian forces in a battle near Beneventum, thus denying Hannibal much needed reinforcements.

title: 214 BC

year_label: 212 BCE

text: The Roman consuls, Appius Claudius Pulcher and Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, besiege Capua with eight legions. Hanno moves to Beneventum to try to help the inhabitants of Capua, but he is defeated by the Romans.

title: 212 BC

year_label: 83 BCE

text: Spring – Lucius Cornelius Sulla returns to Italy from his campaigns in Greece and lands with his legions unopposed at Brundisium. He defeats the popular forces of Gaius Norbanus in the Battle of Mount Tifata.

title: 83 BC

year_label: 58 BCE

text: Julius Caesar becomes a provincial governor (proconsul) and leads a Roman army (6 Roman legions; Legio VII, Legio VIII, Legio IX, Legio X, and newly levied Legio XI and Legio XII) into Gaul. He deploys auxiliaries as part of this army, including Balearic slingers, Numidian and Cretan archers, and Celtic/Gallic cavalry (such as the allied Aedui).

title: 58 BC

year_label: 53 BCE

text: Winter – Caesar enrolls non-citizen soldiers in Gallia Transalpina, genesis of Legio V Alaudae. He increases his army to ten legions.

title: 53 BC

year_label: 43 BCE

date: March

text: March – Vibius Pansa set out to link up with Hirtius and Octavian, bringing four legions of recruits, having left one, the legio urbana, to defend Rome.

title: 43 BC

year_label: 42 BCE

date: January

text: January – Publius Vatinius, governor of Illyricum, seizes Dyrrachium and is forced to surrender his army (three legions) to Marcus Junius Brutus.

title: 42 BC

section: Deaths

text: Spring – Quintus Salvidienus Rufus marches to Transalpine Gaul to take command of the eleven legions, after the death of Quintus Fufius Calenus. Octavian divorces Claudia and marries Scribonia, a sister of Lucius Scribonius Libo and a follower of Sextus.

title: 40 BC

year_label: 39 BCE

text: Marcus Antonius dispatches Publius Ventidius Bassus with 11 legions to the East and drives Quintus Labienus out of Asia Minor. Labienus retreats into Syria, where he receives Parthian reinforcements. Ventidius finally defeats him in the battle at the Taurus Mountains.

title: 39 BC

year_label: 35 BCE

text: Sextus Pompeius defeats the governor of Asia, Gaius Furnius, with three legions and seizes Nicaea and Nicomedia (modern Izmit).

title: 35 BC

year_label: 34 BCE

text: Antony advances into Armenia with an expeditionary force (16 legions) and marches to the capital Artaxata. He arrests king Artavasdes II and takes him to Alexandria.

title: 34 BC

year_label: 30 BCE

text: Summer – Cornelius Gallus lands in Cyrene and occupies Paraetonium. Mark Antony storms the city walls and blockades the harbour, then retreats with his army (7 legions) to Egypt and receives the news that Pelusium has opened its gates to Octavian without resistance.

title: 30 BC

year_label: 28 BCE

text: The Roman Senate grants Octavian Caesar imperium maius (supreme command) of the Roman armed forces (Around 28 legions).

title: 28 BC

year_label: 27 BCE

text: Caesar Augustus starts a new military reform. He reduces the number of legions to 26 and creates the Praetorian Guard (1,000 men).

title: 27 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic/Empire

year_label: 26 BCE

text: Augustus starts a campaign against the Cantabrians in northern Hispania. He leads an army (8 legions) and consolidates the north-eastern region.

title: 26 BC

year_label: 23 BCE

text: In response to Meroë's incursions into Upper Egypt, the Roman legions move south and raze Napata. (History of Sudan).

title: 23 BC

year_label: 22 BCE

text: The Roman governor of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, marches up the Nile with legions XXII Deiotariana and III Cyrenaica, and destroys the Nubian capital of Napata.

title: 22 BC

year_label: 13 BCE

text: Drusus is granted governor of Gaul and mobilises a Roman army to beat the Germans back across the Rhine. He travels to the North Sea and pays tribute to the Frisii.

title: 13 BC

year_label: 12 BCE

text: Roman armies based at Xanten, Cologne and Mainz campaign beyond the Rhine.

title: 12 BC

year_label: 6 CE

text: AD 6 – Tiberius makes Carnuntum his base of operations against Maroboduus; The Roman legion XX Valeria Victrix fight with Tiberius against the Marcomanni.

title: 0s

section: Events › Roman Empire

year_label: 14 CE

text: The town and port of Nauportus are plundered by a mutinous Roman legion that was sent there to build roads and bridges.

title: 10s

section: Events › 14 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 18 CE

text: Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, governor of Syria, ignores the order of Germanicus to send Syrian-based legions, including Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X Fretensis, to Armenia to back him in his planned coronation of Artaxias III.

title: 10s

section: Events › 18 AD › Syria

section: Exploration & Expansion

text: Roman legions in Germania are transported by fleet to the fortress of Flevum on the Rhine, to operate against the rebellious Frisians.

title: 20s

section: Events › 28 AD › Germania

text: Corbulo inspects a base of Legio X Fretensis in Syria, at Cyrrhus; the Roman legionaries are demoralized by a "long peace". Many soldiers sell their helmets and shields.

title: 50s

section: Events › 54 AD › Syrian

year_label: 58 CE

text: Roman-Parthian War: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, commander in the East, launches his Armenian offensive against Parthia. He leads a Roman army (four legions) through the mountainous country of Armenia, against the fortress at Volandum, to the southwest of Artaxata. After a siege of eight hours Corbulo takes the city; the legionnaires massacre the defenders and plunder Volandum to their hearts' content.

title: 50s

section: Events › 58 AD › Caucasus

year_label: 62 CE

text: Battle of Rhandeia: The Roman army (two legions) is defeated by the Parthians under king Tiridates I. Paetus surrenders and withdraws his disheveled army to Syria.

title: AD 62

year_label: 70 CE

text: 12th of Artemisios (12th of Iyar, about May 11) – Titus and his Roman legions breach the Second Wall of Jerusalem. The Jewish defenders retreat to the First Wall. The Romans start building a circumvallation; all trees within 90 stadia (ca. fifteen kilometres) of the city are cut down.

title: AD 70

text: Vespasian disbands four Rhine legions (I Germanica, IV Macedonica, XV Primigenia and XVI Gallica), disgraced for having surrendered or lost their eagles during the revolt of Julius Civilis.

title: AD 70

year_label: 86 CE

text: First Battle of Tapae: Roman legions face disaster in Dacia, when Roman general Cornelius Fuscus launches a powerful offensive that becomes a failure. Encircled in the valley of Timi, he dies along with his entire army. Rome must pay tribute to the Dacians in exchange for a vague recognition of Rome's importance.

title: AD 86

section: Events › By place › Dacia

text: August 11 – The south-eastern part of Dacia (modern Romania) becomes a Roman province: Roman Dacia. The veterans of the legions are given land in the new province for their service in the Roman army.

title: AD 106

text: Emperor Hadrian stations Legio VI Victrix in Roman Britain, to assist in quelling the resistance of a local rebellion. The legion is key in securing the victory, and eventually replaces Legio IX Hispana at Eboracum.

title: AD 119

date: November 27

text: November 27 – Emperor Marcus Aurelius grants his son Commodus the rank of Imperator, and makes him Supreme Commander of the Roman legions.

title: AD 176

text: Publius Helvius Pertinax is made governor of Britain and quells a mutiny of the British Roman legions who wanted him to become emperor. The disgruntled usurpers go on to attempt to assassinate the governor.

title: AD 185

text: Battle of Issus: Septimius Severus marches with his army (12 legions) to Cilicia, and defeats Pescennius Niger, Roman governor of Syria. Pescennius retreats to Antioch, and is executed by Severus' troops.

title: AD 194

text: In order to assure the support of the Roman legion in Germany on his march to Rome, Clodius Albinus is declared Augustus by his army while crossing Gaul.

title: AD 196

text: Septimius Severus reconstitutes the Province of Mesopotamia under an equestrian governor commanding two legions.

title: AD 197

text: Two new legions, I Parthica and III Parthica, are formed as a permanent garrison.

title: AD 199

text: Emperor Septimius Severus returns to Rome after a five-year absence. Festivals are held to celebrate his six-year reign. Severus undertakes changes in the imperial government, giving the Roman army a dominant role, raising pay in the legions and permitting legionaries to marry in order to secure their loyalty.

title: 202

text: Britain is divided: in the north, Lower Britain (Britannia Inferior) is administered from the fortress at Eburacum (modern York), and in the south, Upper Britain (Britannia Superior) is controlled by the legions at Deva Victrix (Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon) with its capital at Londinium (London).

title: 208

text: June 8 – Battle of Antioch: Elagabalus defeats, with the support of the Syrian legions, the forces of Macrinus. Macrinus flees, but is captured near Chalcedon and later executed in Cappadocia.

title: 218

text: Emperor Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Mamaea move to Moguntiacum (modern Mainz), the capital of Germania Superior. His generals have planned a military offensive and built a bridge across the Rhine. Alexander prefers to negotiate for peace by buying off the Alemanni. This policy outrages the Roman legions and he loses the trust of the troops.

title: 234

text: The legions who have campaigned against the Goths on the Danube elect Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus as new emperor. He advances on Rome along the Flaminian Way, to meet his opponent emperor Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus. For the most part, generals in the border regions are proclaimed emperor by their armies to halt the invasion of Germanic tribes.

title: 253

text: Battle of Mediolanum: A Germanic confederation, the Alamanni (300,000 warriors), who crossed the Alps, are defeated by Roman legions under Gallienus, near Mediolanum (modern Milan).

title: 259

text: Victorinus is declared emperor of the Gallic Empire by the legions at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), following the murders of his predecessors. He is recognized by the provinces of Gaul and Britain, but Hispania might have reunited with the Roman Empire.

title: 268

text: Second Gothic invasion: The Goths and other German tribes attack Bosphorean towns on the coast of the Black Sea. Some 2,000 ships and 320,000 men from the Danube enter Roman territory. Emperor Claudius II defeats the invaders and receives the title Gothicus for his triumph. Many of the prisoners will serve in the Roman legions and settle in vacant lands in the Danubian provinces.

title: 269

text: Florianus becomes Roman Emperor with the support of the Senate, but a general in the east, Marcus Aurelius Probus, usurps power against him. Florianus breaks off his campaign against the Goths and marches east from the Bosporus with support from the Roman legions in Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy.

title: 276

text: Summer: Carausius, commander of the Classis Britannica, is accused of piracy by Maximian and is sentenced to death. He responds by declaring himself emperor of Britain and Northwestern Gaul. His forces consist of the newly built Roman fleet and three legions in Britain. The Carausian Revolt is supported by Gaulish merchant ships and Frankish mercenaries.

title: 286

text: September 28 – Procopius revolts and bribes two legions passing by Constantinople. He proclaims himself Emperor, and takes control of Thrace and Bithynia.

title: AD 365

text: Winter – Valentinian I mobilises a massive army for his campaign against the Alamanni and the Franks. He summons the Italian and Illyrian legions for a spring offensive.

title: 367

text: Gothic War: Emperor Valens permits the Visigothic chieftain Fritigern and his people to cross the Danube from Thrace (later Romania), and settle on Roman soil in Lower Moesia, on the condition that they provide soldiers to the legions. The Visigoths embark by troops on boats and rafts, and canoes made from hollowed tree trunks. The river is swollen by frequent rains; a large number try to swim and are drowned in their struggle against the force of the stream.

title: 376

text: Autumn – The remaining Roman legions in Britain decide to mutiny. The usurper Marcus is proclaimed emperor.

title: 406

text: The Eastern Roman Empire sends six legions (6,000 men) to aid Honorius at Ravenna. He negotiates with King Alaric I, who ceremonially deposes Priscus Attalus as co-emperor.

title: 410


slug: roman-legionary

label: Roman legionary

year_label: 37 BCE

section: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

text: Caesar Augustus (Octavian) engineers the "Second Pact of Tarentum" which renews the Triumvirate for an additional five years. Mark Antony exchanges 120 ships, for service against Sextus Pompeius. Octavian Caesar donates 1,000 troops from the Praetorian Guard and 20,000 legionaries for the Parthian campaign in Syria.

title: 37 BC

section: Events › By place › Roman Republic

section: Conflict & Security

text: Hadrian's Wall is completed in Britain. Built mostly of stone in the east and with a wooden palisade in the west. They construct at least 16 forts, with about 15,000 legionaries digging ditches, quarrying rock and cutting stone, preventing idleness which led to unrest and rebellions in the ranks.

title: AD 128

section: Events › By place › Roman Empire

text: Emperor Hadrian visits the Roman province of North Africa, in order to inspect Legio III Augusta stationed at Lambaesis. For strategic reasons, the legionnaires are located in the Aurès Mountains.

title: AD 128

text: Merchants in Britain build structures outside the forts of Hadrian's Wall, and offer goods and services (including brothels) to Roman soldiers, who receive salaries in a region that otherwise has virtually no ready money.

title: AD 132

text: Miracle in Moravia: As the Roman army is encircled by the Quadi under intense heat, a violent thunderstorm sweeps away the Quadi in a torrent of water and mud, and refreshes the parched legionaries.

title: AD 172

section: Culture & Society

text: Empress Faustina the Younger accompanies her husband, Marcus Aurelius, on various military campaigns and enjoys the love of the Roman soldiers. Aurelius gives her the title of Mater Castrorum ("Mother of the Camp").

title: AD 174

text: Roman legionaries of Legio II Adiutrix engrave on the rock of the Trenčín Castle (Slovakia) the name of the town Laugaritio, marking the northernmost point of Roman presence in that part of Europe.

title: AD 179

section: Events › By place › Roman empire

text: Clodius Albinus, who had been proclaimed emperor in Britain, crosses into Gaul with his legions, while at the same time recruiting new soldiers. He is soon the head of an army of 150,000 men, according to Cassius Dio. Severus, still in Mesopotamia, hastily returns to Rome.

title: AD 195

date: February 19

text: February 19 – Battle of Lugdunum: Emperor Septimius Severus defeats the self-proclaimed emperor Clodius Albinus at Lugdunum (modern Lyon). Albinus commits suicide; legionaries sack the town.

title: AD 197

title: 202

text: Mithraism, which had begun in Persia, is on course to be adopted by many Roman soldiers serving in Asia.

title: 216

section: Events › By topic › Religion

text: Trajan Decius puts down a revolt in Moesia and Pannonia. Loyal legionaries proclaim him emperor, and he leads them into Italy.

title: 249

text: Emperor Valerian leads an army (70,000 men) to relieve Edessa, besieged by the forces of Persian King Shapur I. An outbreak of a plague kills many legionaries, weakening the Roman position in Syria.

title: 259


slug: roman-navy

label: Roman navy

description: navy of ancient Rome

year_label: 68 BCE

section: Disasters & Accidents

text: Ostia, the harbour city of Ancient Rome, is sacked by pirates. The port is set on fire and the consular war fleet is destroyed.

title: 68 BC

year_label: 43 BCE

section: Crime & Justice

text: Antony marches to Parma (which is sacked) and Placentia. He then crosses the Ligurian Alps to Vada Sabatia, 50 km 0 south-west of Genoa, and joins with Aemilius Lepidus, soon after Decimus Brutus is killed by brigands. The Senate declares Antony a hostis, an enemy of the state. Sextus Pompey becomes supreme commander of the Roman navy and Gaius Cassius proconsul of Syria.

title: 43 BC

section: Technology & Infrastructure

text: Agrippa creates the harbour "Portus Julius" in the today-submersed town of Puteoli (the modern Pozzuoli, close to Naples). The port is used to train the warships for naval battles, and a new fleet is built, with 20,000 oarsmen gathered by freeing slaves. He also incorporates, on quinqueremes, a technical innovation, called the harpax ("snatcher"): a combination ballista and grappling hook, based on the corvus.

title: 37 BC

year_label: 35 BCE

text: Illyria becomes a Roman province. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian conducts a rendezvous with the Roman fleet under Agrippa, which is engaged in clearing the Dalmatian coast of piracy.

title: 35 BC

year_label: 32 BCE

text: Spring – Final War of the Roman Republic: Mark Antony transfers his headquarters from Samos to Athens, where he assembles a fleet of 500 combat vessels and 300 transport ships, crewed by 150,000 men.

title: 32 BC

year_label: 16 CE

text: Germanicus employs the North Sea fleet to avoid dangerous rivers, embarking an army in the Rhine Delta, aboard circa 1,000 ships. He defeats the Germans at the Amisius river estuary and the Weser, but during its return, the Roman fleet is partially destroyed by storms.

title: 10s

section: Events › 16 AD › Roman Empire

year_label: 79 CE

section: Deaths

date: August 24

text: August 24 or c. October 24 – Eruption of Mount Vesuvius: Mount Vesuvius erupts, destroying Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and Oplontis. The Roman navy (based at Misenum), commanded by Pliny the Elder, evacuates refugees. Pliny dies after inhaling volcanic fumes.

title: AD 79

text: Emperor Trajan starts the second expedition against Dacia; he leaves with the Imperial Roman fleet from Brundusium.

title: AD 105

text: Septimius Severus forms new naval units, manning all the triremes in Italy with heavily armed troops for war in the East. His soldiers embark on an artificial canal between the Tigris and Euphrates.

title: AD 197

text: The Heruli invade the Black Sea coast; they unsuccessfully attack Byzantium and Cyzicus. The Roman fleet defeats the Herulian fleet (500 ships) but allows them to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they raid the islands of Lemnos and Skyros.

title: 267

text: The Germans destroy the Roman fleet on the Rhine; Bonosus is proclaimed emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne).

title: 280

text: Summer: Carausius, commander of the Classis Britannica, is accused of piracy by Maximian and is sentenced to death. He responds by declaring himself emperor of Britain and Northwestern Gaul. His forces consist of the newly built Roman fleet and three legions in Britain. The Carausian Revolt is supported by Gaulish merchant ships and Frankish mercenaries.

title: 286

text: Emperor Majorian builds a Roman fleet at Miseno and Ravenna. He strengthens the army, by recruiting a large number of barbarian mercenaries (Bastarnae, Burgundians, Huns, Ostrogoths, Rugii, Scythians and Suebi).

title: 458

text: Battle of Cape Bon: The Vandals defeat the Roman navy under Basiliscus, anchored at Promontorium Mercurii, 45 miles from Carthage (Tunisia). During peace negotiations Genseric uses fire ships, filling them with brushwood and pots of oil, destroying 700 imperial galleys. Basiliscus escapes with his surviving fleet to Sicily, harassed all the way by Moorish pirates.

title: 468