lead: Battle of Fano: The Iuthungi move towards a defenseless Rome. Aurelian rallies his men and defeats the Germanic tribes on the Metauro River, just inland of Fano. King Shapur I builds the Academy of Gundishapur (Iran), which becomes the intellectual center of the Sassanid Empire. A magnetic compass is first used in China.

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title: 271


lead: Aurelian supports the bishops of Italy in deposing the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, who had been a supporter of Zenobia. This is the first recorded instance of an imperial intervention in an ecclesiastical dispute. Battle of Immae: Aurelian defeats the Palmyrene heavy cavalry (clibanarii) near Antioch. Queen Zenobia flees under cover of darkness to Emesa (Syria). Saint Denis, first Bishop of Paris, and two of his disciples are beheaded on the road to the Temple of Mercury that stands atop a hill outside of the city. The hill will later be called Montmartre (Mountain of Martyrs) in Lutetia (modern Paris).

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title: 272

license: CC BY-SA 4.0


lead: The year also saw most lost territories to rebellion returned to the Roman Empire by Emperor Aurelian.

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title: 273


lead: Mani, a sage of Persia, dies at Gundeshapur after 30 years of preaching his "heresy" at the court of the late Sassanian King Shapur I and on long journeys to Khorasan, India and China. He is executed or allowed to die in prison, and claims to be a prophet of God. Mani combines Zoroastrian dualism with Christian theology, and his disciples gain wide support for Manichaeism, despite opposition from Roman Emperors. Aurelian has the Temple of the Sun dedicated to Sol Invictus, on the third day after the solstice and day of rebirth of the sun. This religion, which is in essence monotheistic, becomes the state religion of Rome. The Kingdom of Aksum attains great prosperity thanks to its control of Red Sea trade.

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title: 274


lead: Eutychian succeeds Felix I as the 27th pope of Rome. /December – Marcus Claudius Tacitus is proclaimed Emperor by the imperial field army (other sources give him as proclaimed September 25 by the Senate). His half brother Marcus Annius Florianus becomes praetorian prefect. Approximate date – Himyar king Shammar Yahri'sh conquers Hadhramaut, Najran and Tihamah, unifying the territory later known as Yemen.

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title: 275


lead: Tacitus campaigns successfully against the Goths who have invaded Asia Minor, and his half-brother, the praetorian prefect Marcus Annius Florianus, continues the campaign. King Bahram I of Persia dies after a 3-year reign, in which the Zoroastrian priests at Ctesiphon (Iran) put pressure on him to persecute Buddhists, Christians, and Manichaeans. He is succeeded by his son Bahram II. Mahasena reigns in Ceylon. Orthodox and unpopular, he tries to introduce Mahayana Buddhism to the country.

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title: 276


lead: Tuoba Xilu succeeds his father Tuoba Liwei, as chieftain of the Tuoba clan. Probus enters Rome, to have his position as Emperor ratified by the Senate. Emperor Probus travels with his army west across the Sea of Marmara (Turkey), and through the provinces of Thrace, Moesia, and Pannonia to defeat the Goths along the lower Danube. He acquires from the troops the title of Gothicus.

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title: 277


lead: Emperor Probus defeats the Alamanni, advancing through the Neckar Valley. He expels the Franks from Gaul, and reorganizes the Roman defenses on the Rhine. Piracy along the coast of Lycia et Pamphylia: The Romans besiege the city of Cremna (Pisidia) and kill the Isaurian robber Lydius. Probus resettles the Germanic tribes in the devastated provinces of the Roman Empire. He adopts the titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus.

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title: 278


lead: Sourced entries for 279 CE.

sections: Births Deaths

title: 279


label: 28 CE

lead: Roman legions in Germania are transported by fleet to the fortress of Flevum on the Rhine, to operate against the rebellious Frisians. King Daru of Baekje succeeds to the throne of Baekje in the Korean peninsula. Frisians revolt against Roman authorities, hanging tax collectors and besieging a local fort. Frisians achieve victory and gain considerable prestige among other local tribes.

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title: 20s


lead: Julius Saturninus, governor of Syria, is in Alexandria, charged with the defense of the East. He is declared emperor and withdraws to Apamea. Probus besieges the city and puts him to death. The Germans destroy the Roman fleet on the Rhine; Bonosus is proclaimed emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). The Thuringi, a Germanic tribe, appears in the Harz Mountains (Thuringia) of central Germania.

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title: 280


lead: Tiberianus served his first of two terms as Consul. Emperor Probus returns to Rome, where he celebrates his triumph over the Vandals and the usurpers (Bonosus, Julius Saturninus and Proculus). The tombs of King Zhao of Zhou and King Mu of Zhou were "rifled".

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title: 281


lead: The Patriarch Theonas of Alexandria becomes one of the first bishops to use the title Pope. Carus appoints his sons Carinus and Numerian as Caesar. Emperor Probus travels towards Sirmium (Serbia). He tries to employ his troops in peaceful projects, such as draining the swamps in Pannonia.

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title: 282


lead: Pope Caius succeeds Eutychian as the 28th pope of Rome. Exploiting the Persian civil war, Carus leaves Carinus in charge of much of the Roman Empire and, accompanied by his younger son Numerian, invades the Sassanid Empire. They sack Seleucia and Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian kingdom, and they press on beyond the Tigris. For his victories, Carus receives the title of Persicus Maximus. Carinus and Numerian succeed their father Carus. Numerian, who had accompanied his father into the Persian Empire, leads the army back to Roman territory.

title: 283


lead: The commander of Numerian's domestici (household troops), Diocles, is chosen to be the new emperor. In a military assembly outside Nicomedia (modern İzmit, Turkey), Diocles claims that the praetorian prefect (and rival for the throne) Arrius Aper murdered Numerian, and he personally stabs and kills the prefect on the spot. The new emperor changes his name to the Latinised 'Diocletian'. Building on existing trends, Diocletian presents his rule as that of a god-like dominus or autocrat. Emperor Numerian travels through Bithynia (Asia Minor) on his way home to Rome. Suffering from an inflammation of the eyes, he travels in a closed litter in which soldiers find his decaying corpse. King of Kings Bahram II installs Mirian III, of the House of Mihran, on the throne of the Kingdom of Iberia. Mirian would rule the kingdom until his death in c. 361.

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title: 284


lead: Spring – Emperor Carinus marches from Britain to northern Italy, and defeats the army of usurper Sabinus Julianus at Verona. Carausius, naval commander at Bononia (modern-day Boulogne), is given the task of clearing the English Channel of Frankish and Saxon pirates. Summer – Battle of the Margus: Emperor Diocletian defeats the forces of Carinus in the valley of the Margus (Serbia). Numerous soldiers desert Carinus during the battle. Carinus then flees to the Pannonian fort of Cornacum, but he is soon slain by his officers.

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title: 285


lead: Emperor Diocletian campaigns successfully against Sarmatian raids. The future emperor Constantius defeats the 'Bosporian Sarmatians'. Chaekgye becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. Summer: Carausius, commander of the Classis Britannica, is accused of piracy by Maximian and is sentenced to death. He responds by declaring himself emperor of Britain and Northwestern Gaul. His forces consist of the newly built Roman fleet and three legions in Britain. The Carausian Revolt is supported by Gaulish merchant ships and Frankish mercenaries.

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title: 286


lead: The first Indiction begins. Around this time, the future emperor Constantius defeats and captures a Germanic king, the latter having prepared an ambush against the Romans. Diocletian signs a peace treaty with King Bahram II of Persia, and installs the pro-Roman Arsacid Tiridates III as king over the western portion of Armenia.

title: 287


lead: Around this time, an army loyal to Maximian, probably led by the future emperor Constantius, defeats the usurper Carausius or his Frankish allies in northern Gaul. In this or the following year, Carausius withdraws his military forces and administrative presence from Gaul, confining himself to Roman Britain. Emperor Diocletian launches a campaign into Germanic territory from the province of Raetia (Switzerland). Around this time, Constantius marries Maximian's stepdaughter, Theodora, and it may also be around this time that the general Galerius marries Diocletian's daughter Galeria Valeria.

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title: 288


lead: In this or the following year, Emperor Diocletian campaigns with success against the Sarmatians. The future emperor Galerius may have distinguished himself during this campaign. In this or the following year, Maximian attempts to reconquer Britain from the usurper Carausius but is defeated at sea.

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title: 289


label: 29 CE

lead: According to the Gospel of Luke (Luke 3:1-2), the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus is thought to have started this year. Agrippina the Elder is exiled to the island of Pandataria, and her sons (except Caligula) are imprisoned by Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Jesus is executed by crucifixion, according to Roman Catholic tradition and Tertullian's chronology.

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title: 20s


lead: Emperor Wu of Jin, founder of the Western Jin Dynasty, dies after a 25-year reign. He reunified north and south, but gave away many dukedoms to his kinsmen. Crown Prince Sima Zhong succeeds his father, and has to deal with conflicts among the aristocratic families in China. Following his victory over Emperor Maximian's fleet, the usurper Carausius invades the European mainland and re-establishes his military and administrative presence in northern Gaul. Emperor Diocletian campaigns with success against Arabic enemies.

title: 290


lead: The Tervingian Goths and Taifali fight the Vandals and Gepids. War of the Eight Princes: After the death of Emperor Sima Yan (Jin Wudi), a civil war breaks out among the princes and dukes of the Jin Dynasty. The struggle devastates and depopulates the provinces of northern China. Perhaps in cooperation with the forces of Maximian, Carausius campaigns successfully against Germanic raids in Gaul and Britain. Also during his reign, Carausius begins building the forts of the Saxon Shore.

title: 291


lead: The jurist Gregorius, at the court of Emperor Diocletian, produces the Gregorian Code, the first codification of Roman law (approximate date). The oldest known Mayan stele is erected at the capital Tikal (modern Guatemala). The Upper Egypt revolts of (292–293) outbreak in Egypt, centralized in the city of Thebes, primarily involving other Egyptian cities such as Busiris and Coptos. A precursor to the much larger national Egyptian rebellion that followed a few years later.

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title: 292


lead: Emperors Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius I and Galerius as Caesars. This is considered the beginning of the Tetrarchy, known as the Quattuor Principes Mundi ("Four Rulers of the World"). (Some sources and scholars date Galerius' elevation to May 21.). In this or the following year, Constantius defeats the Franks in Batavia (Netherlands). Galerius begins a series of two campaigns in Upper Egypt against the rebel cities of Coptos and Boresis as well as the Blemmyes and Meroitic Nubians.

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title: 293


lead: Tuoba Luguan succeeds his nephew Tuoba Fu, as chieftain of the Chinese Tuoba clan.

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title: 294


lead: Tuoba Luguan divides the territory of the Tuoba clan into three areas. His nephews Tuoba Yilu and Tuoba Yituo become chieftains of the western and central areas of (Shanxi province). Tuoba Luguan dominates the eastern area (near Hohhot). The jurist Hermogenianus, at the court of Diocletian, produces the Hermogenian Code. This new codification of Roman law complements the Gregorian Code of c. 292. Caesar Galerius completes a series of two campaigns in Upper Egypt, against the rebel cities of Coptos and Boresis, as well as the Blemmyes and Meroitic Nubians.

title: 295


lead: Pope Caius dies after a 13-year reign and is succeeded by Marcellinus as the 29th pope of Rome. Having supervised the Rhine frontier during Constantius' invasion of Britain, Maximian then marches into Spain, where he fights Frankish pirates. He then crosses into North Africa to contend with the rebellion of the Quinquegentiani. The Persian king Narseh invades Roman-held Upper Mesopotamia and Arsacid western Armenia, the latter territory being under the leadership of the pro-Roman king Tiridates III. With only a small army, Caesar Galerius fights three holding actions against Narseh's army in Mesopotamia. Somewhere in the open plains between Carrhae and Callinicum, Galerius' army suffers a defeat against the Persian army, which is both more numerous and contains superior numbers of high-quality cavalry. Nevertheless, Galerius succeeds in blunting the Persian offensive.

title: 296


lead: Domitius Domitianus launches a usurpation against Diocletian in Egypt. He is perhaps aided by popular discontent with Diocletian's taxation reform. Domitianus dies, but his corrector Aurelius Achilleus takes over as the leader of the rebellion. Battle of Satala: Galerius launches a surprise attack against Narseh's camp in western Armenia. The Romans sack the camp and capture Narseh's wives, sisters and daughters, including his Queen of Queens Arsane. Narseh is wounded and escapes to his empire.

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title: 297


lead: Spring: Emperor Diocletian retakes Alexandria and crushes the usurpation of Aurelius Achilleus. Caesar Galerius restores Tiridates III to the throne of Armenia and invades the Sassanid Empire. His army marches through Adiabene, Atropatene, Susiana and Lower Mesopotamia. He then retakes the strategically important city of Nisibis in Upper Mesopotamia. Bunseo becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje.

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title: 298


lead: Returning to Rome in triumph, Maximian commissions the Baths of Diocletian in honour of his 'brother' Diocletian. Peace of Nisibis: Emperor Diocletian signs a treaty with the Persian king Narseh that will last for 40 years. The Persians accept Roman dominion over Armenia, the Caucasus, and Upper Mesopotamia. The pro-Roman ruler Tiridates III receives all of Armenia as far as the border with Atropatene. Mirian III of the Kingdom of Iberia is made a Roman client, and at some point in time, as a result of the treaty, Caucasian Albania will follow suit. Rome also gains five satrapies beyond the Tigris, which are perhaps given to Tiridates to administer. To celebrate his victory over the Persians, Galerius commissions the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki (modern Greece).

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title: 299


label: 3 CE

lead: AD 3 – Wang Mang foils a plot by his son, Wang Yu, his brother-in-law, Lu Kuan, and the Wei clan to oust him from the regent's position. Wang Yu and Lu Kuan are killed in the purge that follows. AD 3 – The rule of Emperor Augustus is renewed for a ten-year period.

title: 0s


label: 30 CE

lead: Agrippina the Elder (the wife of Germanicus) and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar, are arrested and exiled on orders of Lucius Aelius Sejanus (the prefect of the Praetorian Guard), and later starved to death in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, her son Caligula, and her three daughters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla are the only survivors. Velleius Paterculus writes the general history of the countries known in Antiquity. Phaedrus translates Aesop's fables, and composes some of his own.

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title: 30s


lead: First beginning in Europe at the end of the Roman Empire (after the split of the Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire (later Byzantine Empire) in the early Middle Ages / Medieval period.

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title: 300


lead: The republic of San Marino is established (approximate date). Diocletian issues his Edict on Maximum Prices, which, rather than halting rampant inflation, causes widespread panic and an increase in inflation. The measure is quickly abandoned. King Tiridates III (the Great) proclaims Christianity as the official state religion, making Armenia the first nation to adopt Christianity as its official religion (traditional date). Construction of the original Etchmiadzin Cathedral by Gregory the Illuminator begins.

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title: 301


lead: Emperor Diocletian persecutes the Manichaeans, accusing them of being a Persian fifth column. Iamblichus of Chalcis writes a treatise on magic and the occult. Narseh, ruler (Shahanshah) of the Sassanid Empire, dies after a 9-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Hormizd II.

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title: 302


lead: Adrian and Natalia of Nicomedia are martyred. On a voyage preaching the gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens (Modern day France). Etchmiadzin Cathedral is completed by Gregory the Illuminator and Tiridates III, king of Armenia.

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title: 303


lead: Pope Marcellinus dies at Rome after an 8-year reign. The papal throne will remain vacant until 308. Cheng-Han earns its independence from Jin dynasty. Sixteen Kingdoms: The Xiongnu establishes the Han-Zhao state under Liu Yuan, often seen as the start of the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians.

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title: 304


lead: Emperor Diocletian abdicates and retires to his palace at Salona (modern Split) on the Adriatic coast, after a reign of nearly 21 years, in which the last vestiges of republican government have disappeared. Maximinus Daza persecutes the Christians of Egypt, many of whom take refuge in the desert. In time, this refuge leads to the monastic life. In these monasteries, Coptic writing develops, supporting the propagation of Christian texts. Catherine makes a public confession of the Christian gospel at a sacrificial feast ordered by Maximinus Daza at Alexandria. A virgin of royal descent, she is tortured on a spiked wheel (later called the "Catherine Wheel") and beheaded; her remains are spirited to Mount Sinai.

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title: 305


lead: Constantius I dies outside Eboracum (modern-day York). Constantine, aged 23 or 24, is declared emperor by his troops. Emperor Galerius grants Constantine the title of Caesar, and elevates Flavius Valerius Severus to emperor in the Western part of the Roman Empire. The War of the Eight Princes ends in China. Constantine establishes his capital in Augusta Treverorum (Trier). He begins a major expansion of the city, strengthening the walls, expanding the palace complex and building the Imperial Baths.

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title: 306


lead: Emperor Hui of Jin dies after a 16-year reign, in which eight dukes of the imperial family have conducted a civil war (War of the Eight Princes) against each other in a struggle for power. Huai of Jin, age 23, succeeds his father and becomes the third ruler of the Jin Dynasty. Constantine marries Maximian's daughter Fausta, and is promoted to Augustus by Maximian. Galerius sends Valerius Severus with the army of northern Italy, to suppress the rebellion in Rome. However, faced with their former emperor Maximian, the soldiers desert him, and Severus flees to Ravenna. Maximian besieges Severus in Ravenna, who then surrenders. Maxentius makes Severus a hostage, in an attempt to keep Galerius at bay.

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title: 307


lead: In Rome, Emperor Maximian attempts to depose his son Maxentius, but the soldiers in Rome side with Maxentius and force Maximian to flee to the court of Constantine I. Or June 26 – Pope Marcellus I succeeds Pope Marcellinus as the 30th pope. The Han-Zhao Dynasty is established in northern China, marking the official inception of the long lasting Uprising of the Five Barbarians.

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title: 308


lead: Eusebius succeeds Marcellus I as the 31st pope, but is himself banished on August 17 to Sicily (these events may have also taken place in 310). King Hormizd II, ruler of the Sassanid Empire, demands that the king of the Ghassanids pays tribute. After the king refuses, Hormizd invades Ghassanid territory. The Ghassanids seek aid from Maximinus Daza, but before a Roman army can arrive, Hormizd defeats the Ghassanid army and kills their king. A Ghassanid force then ambushes Hormizd's small retinue while the latter is on a hunting trip, and the Sasanian king is mortally wounded. He dies after a 7-year reign. Gaius Ceionius Rufius Volusianus, the Praetorian Prefect of Emperor Maxentius, defeats the usurper Domitius Alexander and purges Africa of his supporters.

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title: 309


label: 31 CE

lead: Naevius Sutorius Macro becomes the leader of the Praetorian Guard after Sejanus is executed. Lucius Aelius Sejanus is named co-Consul to Emperor Tiberius. However, Tiberius becomes aware of Sejanus' treachery and has him arrested and executed.

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title: 30s


lead: Pope Eusebius succeeds Pope Marcellus I as the 31st pope, but is banished on August 17 by the Emperor Maxentius to Sicily, where he dies, perhaps from a hunger strike. Maximian flees to Marseille where he is besieged and surrenders. Constantine encourages his suicide and Maximian, age 60, hangs himself. Emperor Maxentius condemns the killing of his father. At Trier, Constantine orders the minting of a new coin, the solidus, in an effort to offset the declining value of the denarius and bring stability to the imperial currency by restoring a gold standard. The solidus (later known as the bezant) will be minted in the Byzantine Empire without change in weight or purity until the 10th century.

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title: 310


lead: On his deathbed, Emperor Galerius declares religious freedom and issues the Edict of Serdica, ending the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Galerius dies at age 51 from a gruesome disease, possibly colorectal cancer or Fournier gangrene. Disaster of Yongjia: Xiongnu soldiers led by Liu Cong conquer and pillage the Jin dynasty capital at Luoyang and capture Emperor Huai; 30,000 residents in the city are massacred.

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title: AD 311


lead: Battle of the Milvian Bridge: Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, becoming the only Roman emperor in the West. Prior to the battle, he reportedly has a vision of a cross (labarum) with the phrase "in hoc signo vinces" ("In this sign you shall conquer"). This encourages him to convert to Christianity. Constantine enters Rome; he stages a grand adventus in the city, and is met with popular jubilation. Maxentius' body is fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. Constantine I promotes a policy of state sponsorship of Christianity, perhaps even becoming a Christian himself (see Constantine the Great and Christianity).

title: 312


lead: This year is notable for ending of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire.

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title: 313


lead: Pope Miltiades' reign ends. Pope Sylvester I succeeds Pope Miltiades as the 33rd pope. Council of Arles: Confirms the pronouncement of Donatism as a schism, and passes other canons.

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title: 314


lead: The Arch of Constantine is completed near the Colosseum at Rome to commemorate Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. As part of the ceremony Constantine is expected to make a sacrifice to Rome's traditional gods, but he refuses to do so. Crucifixion is abolished as punishment in the Roman Empire. Constantine the Great and co-emperor Licinius battle the Sarmates, the Goths and the Carpians along the Danube. Constantine leads a punitive expedition into Dacia and reestablishes the Roman fortifications of the frontier.

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title: 315


lead: Battle of Cibalae: Constantine the Great defeats his rival Licinius near the town of Colonia Aurelia Cibalae (modern-day Vinkovci, Croatia). Licinius is forced to flee to Sirmium and loses all of the Balkans except for Thrace. Peace negotiations are initiated between the two Augusti, but they are unsuccessful. Battle of Mardia: Constantine I defeats his rival Licinius and senior officer Valerius Valens, near the town of Harmanli (Bulgaria). Han-Zhao forces capture Chang'an, capital of the Chinese Western Jin dynasty. Emperor Min of Jin surrenders to Liu Yao, ending the Western Jin.

title: 316


lead: Emperor Constantine the Great and co-emperor Licinius elevate their sons Crispus, Constantine II and Licinius II to Caesars. After this arrangement Constantine rules the dioceses Pannonia and Macedonia, and establishes his residence at Sirmium, from where he prepares a campaign against the Goths and Sarmatians. Sixteen Kingdoms: Jingwen (later Yuan of Jin) flees with remnants of the Jin court and noble families to the south. He succeeds Emperor Min of Jin as first ruler of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and decides to make Jiankang (modern Nanjing) his new capital. The earliest historically verified reference to tea is recorded, although the Chinese have been drinking the beverage for centuries.

title: 317


lead: Gregory the Illuminator appoints his son Aristax as successor in the patriarchate of Armenia. Liu Yao becomes the new emperor of Han-Zhao and moves his capital to Chang'an. Emperor Constantine the Great gives the ancient Roman town Drepana (Asia Minor) the name Helenopolis, after his mother Helena, and builds a church in honour of the martyr St. Lucian.

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title: 318


lead: Arius travels to Nicomedia at the invitation of Bishop Eusebius, after having been accused of heresy and condemned by Alexander, the Patriarch of Alexandria. This gives rise to the Arian Controversy. Christianity is introduced in Colchis, present-day Georgia. Emperor Constantine the Great prohibits the separation of the families of slaves, during a change in ownership.

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title: 319


label: 32 CE

lead: Philo writes his symbolic interpretation of the Old Testament (Allegory).

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title: 30s


lead: Pappus of Alexandria, Greek philosopher, observes an eclipse of the sun and writes a commentary on The Great Astronomer (Almagest). King Chandragupta I founds the Gupta dynasty in northern India (approximate date). In Nydam Mose (Denmark), the Nydam oak boat is sacrificed by the Danes (the boat is excavated in the 1830s, when a local farmer finds weapons, including swords and spears).

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title: 320


lead: Constantine I signs legislation directing urban residents to refrain from work, and businesses to be closed, on the "venerable day of the Sun". An exception is made for agriculture. Constantine I assigns convicts to grind Rome's flour, in a move to hold back the rising price of food in an empire whose population has shrunk as a result of plague. History of the Jews in Germany: Jews in modern-day Germany are documented for the first time, in Colonia Agrippinensium (modern-day Cologne).

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
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title: 321


lead: The first dependable representation of a horse rider with paired stirrups is found in China, in a Jin Dynasty tomb.

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title: 322


lead: Emperor Constantine the Great defeats the invading Goths and Sarmatians north of the Danube in Dacia, and claims the title of Sarmaticus Maximus. Crown Prince Ming of Jin succeeds his father Yuan of Jin as emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty.

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title: 323


lead: Battle of Adrianople: Emperor Constantine the Great defeats his rival Licinius near Adrianople, forcing him to retreat to Byzantium. Constantine then invades Thrace with a Visigothic force and raids the countryside. (guiyou day of the 7th month of the 2nd year of the Tai'ning era) In Jin dynasty China, the rebel warlord Wang Dun succumbs to illness as the armies of the Emperor Ming of Jin are approaching his camp. Battle of Chrysopolis: Constantine I definitively defeats Licinius at Chrysopolis, and becomes sole Emperor, thus ending the period of the Tetrarchy. Licinius escapes and gathers around 30,000 of his surviving troops at Nicomedia. Thus, the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy, which began in 306, end with Constantine ruling as sole Emperor.

title: 324


lead: Crown Prince Cheng of Jin, age 4, succeeds his father Ming of Jin as emperor of the Eastern Jin dynasty. During his reign, he is largely advised by regents, his uncle Yu Liang and high-level officials. First Council of Nicaea: Constantine summons an ecumenical council of bishops in Nicaea (Turkey). The Nicene Creed, adopted on June 19, declares that the members of the Trinity (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) are equal. The council decides that Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon after the vernal equinox. Arius is exiled to Illyria; his works are confiscated and consigned to the flames. German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine: Emperor Constantine I personally assures the security of the Danube frontier by defeating the Goths, the Vandals and the Sarmatians.

sections:
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title: 325


lead: (traditional date) – Helena, mother of Constantine I, discovers the so-called True Cross and the Holy Sepulchre (Jesus's tomb) in Jerusalem. On her pilgrimage, which begins about this year, she pauses on the Aegean island of Patmos, where she is said to found the church of Panagia Ekatontapiliani. Emperor Constantine the Great travels to Rome to celebrate the 20th anniversary of his accession to power, but while en route at Pola he orders his older son, Crispus Caesar, to be executed, possibly on charges of adultery. Later, Fausta, second wife of Constantine I, is also executed by being suffocated or boiled in a hot bath. Helena tells Constantine that he must atone for executing his son and wife by building churches, and at about this date construction begins on Old St. Peter's Basilica, the first church on the traditional site of Saint Peter's tomb in Rome, and on the basilica of Golgotha on Calvary outside Jerusalem. He also commissions construction of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (dedicated 339).

title: 326


lead: Approximate traditional date – Helena, mother of Constantine, returning from her pilgrimage to the Holy Land, founds Stavrovouni Monastery on Cyprus. Emperor Constantine the Great decrees that rural slaves can only be sold in the province where they reside, in order to resolve the shortage of labour in the Roman Empire. Construction begins on the Great Church of Antioch, which will be completed in 341.

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title: 327


lead: Athanasius is elected pope of Alexandria following the death of Alexander I. Constantine's Bridge, built over the Danube between Sucidava (Corabia, Romania) and Oescus (Gigen, Bulgaria), is officially opened by the Roman architect Theophilus Patricius. Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr dies. His epitaph, the Namara inscription, is an important source for the Arabic Language.

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title: 328


lead: Roman restrictions on joining the clergy are initiated. The Han-Zhao dynasty, a Southern Xiongnu state during the Sixteen Kingdoms, ends.

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title: 329


label: 33 CE

lead: According to Colin Humphrey's account, Jesus of Nazareth's Last Supper and crucifixion take place. Emperor Tiberius founds a credit bank in Rome. A financial crisis hits Rome, due to poorly chosen fiscal policies. Land values plummet, and credit is increased. These actions lead to a lack of money, a crisis of confidence, and much land speculation. The primary victims are senators, knights and the wealthy. Many aristocratic families are ruined.

sections:
Religion & Belief
Economy & Finance
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title: 30s


lead: Emperor Constantine the Great dedicates the Column of Constantine and Constantinople, or Nova Roma (modern-day Istanbul). He had spent four years expanding the city of Byzantium, having chosen the site for its strategic location on the Bosporus. The city became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Goths devastate the city of Tanais, in the Don River Delta. The Bible is translated into the Gothic language by Wulfila.

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Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Disasters & Accidents
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title: 330


lead: Eusebius of Caesarea writes the Onomasticon. The Fifty Bibles of Constantine are commissioned for use in Constantinople. Gregory the Illuminator withdraws to a small sanctuary in the Daranali province (Armenia).

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title: 331


lead: Constantine I announces a free distribution of food to the citizens in Constantinople, similar to the food given out in the city of Rome. The amount is approximately 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city. Emperor Constantine I and his son Constantine II, aged 16, defeat the Goths in Moesia. The Goths become Roman allies and protect the Danube frontier. Constantine I continues construction of a bridge (in imitation of Trajan and his architect Apollodorus of Damascus) across the Danube, for forward-staging grounds for planned campaigns against local tribes.

sections:
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Technology & Infrastructure
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title: 332


lead: Constantine I elevates his youngest son Constans to the rank of Caesar at Constantinople. Calocaerus revolts against Constantine I and proclaims himself emperor. Flavius Dalmatius, responsible for the security of the eastern frontier, is sent to Cyprus to suppress the rebellion. Shi Hong succeeds his father Shi Le as Emperor of the Later Zhao Empire, in the Period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, but Shi Hong's third cousin Shi Hu holds the real power. Empress Dowager Liu (widow of Shi Le) fails to get rid of Shi Hu, and Shi Hu has her deposed and killed.

title: 333


lead: Flavius Dalmatius puts down a revolt in Cyprus, led by Calocaerus. Calocaerus is brought to Tarsus (Cilicia), and executed. Emperor Constantine the Great reauthorises gladiatorial combat. The Goths protect the Danube frontier against an invasion by the Vandals.

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title: 334


lead: Emperor Constantine I consecrates the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Flavius Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar, with control of Thracia, Achaia, and Macedonia. Pope Sylvester I dies at Rome after a 21-year reign. He is succeeded by Mark as the 34th pope.

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title: 335


lead: Pope Mark succeeds Pope Sylvester I as the 34th pope of the Catholic Church. Pope Mark begins to build the basilica of San Marco; the church is devoted to St. Mark. The military successes of Emperor Constantine I result in most of Dacia being reconquered by the Roman Empire.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Religion & Belief
Economy & Finance
Science & Discovery
Disasters & Accidents
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title: 336


lead: A 4-month papal vacancy ends; Pope Julius I succeeds Pope Mark, as the 35th pope. Constantine the Great, first Christian Roman emperor of the Western Empire (312–324), and of the Roman Empire (324–337), dies in Achyron, near Nicomedia, at age 65, after he is baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia. Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their father Constantine I as co-emperors. The Roman Empire is divided between the three Augusti.

sections:
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title: 337


lead: Eusebius of Nicomedia becomes Patriarch of Constantinople, after Paul I is banished. Tuoba Yihuai, ruler of the Tuoba Dai clan, dies and is succeeded by his brother Tuoba Shiyiqian. The Church of Santa Costanza, Rome, starts to be built (approximate date).

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title: 338


lead: Pope Julius I gives refuge in Rome to the Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius, who is deposed and expelled during the First Synod of Tyre (see 335). Eusebius of Nicomedia is made bishop of Constantinople, while another Arian succeeds Athanasius as bishop of Alexandria, under the name Gregory. Emperor Constantius II hastens to his territory in the East, where a revived Persia under King Shapur II is attacking Mesopotamia. For the next 11 years, the two powers engage in a war of border skirmishing, with no real victor.

title: 339


label: 34 CE

lead: The original inhabitants of Dacia revolt against the Sarmatian tribe of Iazyges, who had enslaved them. The Roman aqueduct Pont du Gard is constructed, running for 50 km, ending at Nîmes. Naevius Sutorius Macro gains favour in the Roman Empire by prostituting his wife Ennia Thrasylla to Caligula.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
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title: 30s


lead: Constantine II, emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire (Britain, Gaul, the Rhine provinces and Iberia), crosses the Alps and attacks the army of his brother Constans I, emperor of the central part of the Roman Empire (Upper Danube, Italy and middle Africa). They clash at Aquileia in northern Italy. Constantine is killed in a skirmish by an ambush of Constans' troops. Wulfila evangelizes among the Goths for 7 years. Acacius succeeds Eusebius as bishop in the see of Caesarea.

title: 340


lead: Coptic Christianity is introduced into Ethiopia by the Syrian apostle Frumentius. He and his colleague Aedesius ware captured by Ethiopians a year or two ago, and have become civil servants at the Aksumite court of King Ezana. Ezana is impressed with Frumentius' teachings and converts to Christianity. Frumentius becomes the first Bishop of Axum and encourages the Christian merchants present in the country to practise their faith openly. Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire, during a decade, extends his kingdom and his influence. A pillar found at Allahabad sings his praises. Thousands of Christians are executed at Seleucia in Mesopotamia.

sections:
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Crime & Justice
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title: 341


lead: The original Hagia Sophia is dedicated in Constantinople. A large earthquake strikes Cyprus. Jin Kangdi succeeds his brother Jin Chengdi as emperor of China.

title: 342


lead: The Eastern Roman Emperor Constantius II campaigns in Adiabene, a vassal kingdom of Armenia (Persian Empire). Pope Julius I tries to unite the Western bishops against Arianism by convoking the Council of Serdica, which acknowledges the pope's supreme authority and grants him the right to judge cases involving the legal possession of episcopal sees, but only Western and Egyptian bishops attend, and Arianism remains strong. The Western Roman Emperor Constans I is in Britain, possibly in a military campaign against the Picts and Scots (the last visit to Britain by a legitimate emperor).

title: 343


lead: Jin Mudi, age 1, succeeds his father Jin Kangdi as emperor of China. His mother, Empress Dowager Chu, becomes the ruling authority at court, and serves as regent. Bishop Eustorgius I brings relics of the Three Magi from Constantinople to Milan, according to a 12th century legend. The Eastern Roman Emperor Constantius II campaigns in eastern Mesopotamia, against the Sassanid Persians.

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title: 344


lead: Merchant Knai Thomman and 400 followers visit the Malabar Coast in Kerala (India), and assist the church there. Constans orders the Basilica di Santa Tecla to be constructed in Milan. The Kadamba Dynasty is founded by Mayurasharma.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
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title: 345


lead: Geunchogo becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. In Korea, the Buyeo Kingdom is absorbed by Goguryeo. Macedonius I, Patriarch of Constantinople, is deposed again by Paul I.

title: 346


lead: The Council of Philippopolis is held as the result of Eastern bishops leaving the Council of Sardica. In Philippopolis (Bulgaria), they excommunicate Pope Julius, and as a result, the Arian controversy is perpetuated. Li Shi, ruler of Cheng Han, fails in his attempt to halt a Jin expedition under Huan Wen. He flees to the capital Chengdu and surrenders his forces. Emperor Jin Mudi spares his life and makes him a marquess. Council of Sardica: An attempt is made to resolve the Arian controversy, and ground rules for bishops are laid down.

title: 347


lead: Wulfila escapes religious persecution by the Gothic chieftain Athanaric, obtains permission from Constantius II to migrate with his flock of converts to Moesia, and settles near Nicopolis ad Istrum (Bulgaria). In Persia, women are enrolled in the army to perform auxiliary services. In India, Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire defeats Rudrasena in battle.

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
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title: 348


lead: Shi Hu, emperor of the Jie state Later Zhao since 334, dies. The state plunges into turmoil with his sons Shi Shi, Shi Zun, Shi Jian and Shi Zhi plotting against each other and holding the emperorship in rapid succession, before ethnic Han Ran Min establishes the short-lived Ran Wei dynasty in 350, bringing the Later Zhao dynasty to an end in 351 before it is itself conquered and divided by the Former Yan and Former Qin dynasties in 351. Shi Shi, youngest of Shi Hui's sons, reigns for 33 days before being deposed and executed at age 10 by Shi Zun. After a brief reign of 183 days, Emperor Shi Zun and his mother Empress Zheng Yingtao are executed; his brother Shi Jian succeeds him, only to be toppled after 103 days in early 350 by Shi Zhi,.

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title: 349


label: 35 CE

lead: Pliny the Elder is brought to Rome before this year. Tiridates III becomes king of Parthia (until AD 36). Emperor Tiberius names Caligula (aka Gaius) and Gamellus, a grandson, as co-heirs.

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title: 30s


lead: Western Roman Emperor Constans I makes himself extremely unpopular; one of his generals, Magnentius, is proclaimed emperor at Augustodunum in the Diocese of Galliae, with the support of the army on the Rhine frontier. Constans I flees towards Spain, where he is subsequently assassinated at Castrum Helenae. Magnentius rules the Western portion of the Roman Empire and is far more tolerant towards Christians and Pagans alike. Vetranio is asked by Constantina, sister of Constantius II, to proclaim himself Caesar. Constantius accepts the new emperor and sends him funds to raise an army.

sections:
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Crime & Justice
Culture & Society
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title: 350


lead: Emperor Constantius II elevates his 25-year-old cousin Constantius Gallus to Caesar at Sirmium (Pannonia). He arranges a marriage with his sister Constantina, and puts him in charge of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire. The Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus breaks out. After his arrival at Antioch, the Jews begin a rebellion in Palestine. The Roman garrison in the town of Diocesarea is wiped out. In India, a new process makes possible the extraction of sugar from sugarcane.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Science & Discovery
Crime & Justice
Culture & Society
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title: 351


lead: Pope Julius I dies after a 15-year reign in which he has made himself the chief opponent of Arianism. He is succeeded by Pope Liberius as the 36th pope, who immediately writes to Constantius II requesting a council at Aquileia to discuss the former Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius, who opposes the Arian belief to which the emperor subscribes. Constantius Gallus sends his general (magister equitum) Ursicinus to forcefully put down the Jewish revolt in Palestine. The rebels destroy the cities Diopolis and Tiberias, while Diocesarea is razed to the ground. Ursicinus gives the order to kill thousands of Jews, even children. After the revolt, a permanent garrison is stationed in Galilee. Ran Wei is destroyed after Ran Min is killed by Murong Jun, the Xianbei emperor of the Former Yan.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Science & Discovery
Crime & Justice
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title: 352


lead: Battle of Mons Seleucus: Emperor Constantius II defeats the usurper Magnentius, who commits suicide in Gaul in order to avoid capture. Constantius becomes sole emperor, and reunifies the Roman Empire. Wang Xizhi, Chinese calligrapher, produces "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion" in running script style. It becomes a model for future calligraphers. Constantius II sends his official Paulus Catena to Britain, to hunt down the opponents supporting Magnentius. Flavius Martinus, vicarius of Britain and supporter of Constantius, opposes the persecutions; he is then accused by Catena of being a traitor. In response, Martinus tries to kill Catena with a sword; he fails and then commits suicide.

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title: 353


lead: As a result of the armies of the West having been largely withdrawn by the usurper Magnus Magnentius, to fight Constantius II, hordes of barbarians (Franks and Alemanni) cross the upper Rhine into Gaul and invade the lands of the Helvetians. Emperor Constantius II recalls his Caesar (and cousin) Constantius Gallus to Constantinople after hearing unfavorable reports about him. Gallus, Caesar of the East, has suppressed revolts in Syria Palaestina and central Anatolia. Constantius strips him of his powers and later has him executed in Pola (Croatia). Libanius becomes a teacher of rhetoric in Antioch; his students include John Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Science & Discovery
Crime & Justice
Births
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title: 354


lead: Arbitio and Lollianus Mavortius begin their term as Roman consuls. Claudius Silvanus, accused of treason, proclaims himself Roman Emperor. After 28 days, Ursicinus arrives from Rome and has Silvanus murdered. In Mediolanum (Italy), Emperor Constantius II raises his cousin Julian the Apostate to the rank of Caesar. He takes command of the western provinces and marries Constantius' sister, Helena.

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Crime & Justice
Culture & Society
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title: 355


lead: Emperor Constantius II issues a decree closing all pagan temples in the Roman Empire, and ordering the banishment once again of the anti-Arian patriarch of Alexandria, Athanasius. He tries to have him arrested during a vigil service, but Athanasius flees to the Nitrian desert in Upper Egypt. Winter – Siege of Senonae: Julian over-winters at Senonae (Bourgogne). German federated troops (foederati) desert and hostile warbands besiege the town. Anthony the Great (pictured) dies at his hermitage near the Red Sea in mid-January at age 105 (approximate), having preached against Arianism, and having tried to codify guidelines for monastic life. His followers subsequently establish the Monastery of Saint Anthony, beginning the tradition of Coptic monasticism.

sections:
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Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Health & Medicine
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title: 356


lead: The Alans rout the Hun army in Western Asia. Summer – Battle of Strasbourg: Julian, Caesar (deputy emperor) and supreme commander of the Roman army in Gaul, wins an important victory against the Alemanni at Strasbourg (Argentoratum), driving the barbarians back behind the Rhine. At about this date, the relics of St Andrew the Apostle are taken from Patras to Constantinople by order of the Emperor Constantius II, and deposited in the Church of the Holy Apostles.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Culture & Society
Deaths

title: 357


lead: An earthquake destroys Nicomedia, and damages 150 cities in Macedonia, Asia and Pontus. The last universally binding decision, of the Great Sanhedrin, establishes a fixed Hebrew calendar. An invasion of Pannonia by the Quadi and the Sarmates is repulsed by Constantius II.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Climate & Environment
Births
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title: 358


lead: Emperor Constantius II convenes the Council of Rimini, to resolve the crisis over Arianism in the Church. Some 400 bishops of the Western portion of the Roman Empire attend, while the Eastern bishops simultaneously hold a meeting at Seleucia. Given Saint Jerome's comment that, "The whole world groaned in astonishment to find itself Arian", it appears to have failed. Pope Liberius rejects the new creed at Rimini. Siege of Amida: Shapur II besieges the Roman fortress of Amida (modern Diyarbakir). After seventy-three days the city is conquered and the population is massacred by the Persians. Ammianus Marcellinus is a fortunate survivor and flees to Singara (Iraq). The first known Prefect of the city of Constantinople, Honoratus, takes office.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Climate & Environment
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title: 359


label: 36 CE

lead: Wu Han commands the forces of Emperor Guang Wu of the Eastern Han to conquer the separatist Chengjia Empire, reuniting China. Marcellus becomes governor of Judaea and Samaria. Pontius Pilate is recalled to Rome, after putting down a Samaritan uprising.

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Geopolitics & Diplomacy
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title: 30s


lead: The first Hagia Sophia church is consecrated in Constantinople. Julian, Roman Caesar, is proclaimed emperor in Lutetia (modern Paris). Roman authorities in Britain export wheat to supply the legions on the Rhine; they have encouraged production of wheat for that purpose.

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Geopolitics & Diplomacy
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title: AD 360


lead: Sixteen Kingdoms: Jin Aidi, age 20, succeeds Jin Mudi, as emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Julian begins leading his troops eastwards against Constantius II. George of Cappadocia, the Arian intruding bishop of Alexandria, is murdered in his see and Athanasius of Alexandria returns to his native city in triumph.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Health & Medicine
Crime & Justice
Culture & Society
Deaths

title: 361


lead: Athanasius returns to Alexandria and convenes a council, at which he appeals for unity among Christians who differ in terminology, but Emperor Julian orders Athanasius to leave Alexandria. He will remain in exile in Upper Egypt, until after Julian's death the next year. Emperor Julian arrives at Antioch with an expeditionary force (60,000 men), and stays there for nine months, to launch a campaign against the Persian Empire. He secures the co-operation of King Arsaces of Armenia, who fights a bloody guerrilla war against the Persians. The temple of Apollo at Daphne, outside Antioch, is destroyed in a mysterious fire.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Disasters & Accidents
Climate & Environment
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title: 362


lead: Emperor Julian departs from Antioch with his army (90,000 men) and heads north towards the Euphrates. En route he creates a diversion and sends a force of 30,000 soldiers under his cousin Procopius to Armenia. Julian crosses the Euphrates near Hierapolis, using 50 pontoon ships, and moves eastwards to Carrhae. He destroys Perisapora and overruns Persian forts along the desert frontier (Limes Arabicus). The Roman army starts its retreat northward to Corduene (Armenia). Julian marches back up the Tigris and burns his fleet of supply ships. During the withdrawal Julian's forces suffer several attacks from the Persians.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Science & Discovery
Climate & Environment
Births
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title: 363


lead: Emperor Jovian dies after a reign of eight months. He is found dead in his tent at Tyana (Asia Minor) en route back to Constantinople, in suspicious circumstances. Valentinian I is proclaimed Emperor by officers of the Roman army at Nicaea in Bithynia. He addresses the soldiers (who threaten to riot) in a speech. He founds the Valentinianic dynasty and rules the Western portion of the Roman Empire, from Caledonia (Scotland) to the Rhine frontier, ensuring it a few years of relative security. He settles in Lutetia (Paris) and establishes a militia to defend the region. Valens, brother of Valentinian I, is appointed co-emperor (Augustus) in the palace of Hebdomon (Turkey). He rules the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire, from the Danube to the Persian border, and begins the first anti-pagan persecutions.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Science & Discovery
Births
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title: 364


lead: Sixteen Kingdoms: Jin Feidi, age 23, succeeds his brother Jin Aidi as emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He has no actual power; governmental matters are largely in the hands of his granduncle Sima Yu. An earthquake and tsunami devastate Crete and Alexandria and affects Italy, Greece, and Palestine. Procopius revolts and bribes two legions passing by Constantinople. He proclaims himself Emperor, and takes control of Thrace and Bithynia.

sections:
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Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Climate & Environment
Culture & Society
Births
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title: AD 365


lead: The Alamanni cross the frozen Rhine in large numbers, and invade the Gallic provinces. They capture Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau. Battle of Thyatira: Emperor Valens defeats the troops of Procopius, bringing an end to his revolt; Serenianus and Marcellus are killed. Procopius flees the battlefield, but is executed by Valens. Pope Liberius dies after a 14-year reign and is succeeded by Damasus I as 37th pope. Romans unhappy with this choice elect the antipope Ursicinus.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Technology & Infrastructure
Science & Discovery
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title: 366


lead: Antipope Ursicinus is banished by the praefecti to Gaul. The first Listing of the New Testament (Bible) is made by St. Athanasius of Alexandria. Battle of Solicinium: Emperor Valentinian I launches a punitive expedition against the Alamanni, due to the crises in Britannia and Gaul. The Alamanni re-cross the Rhine and plunder Moguntiacum (modern Mainz).

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Science & Discovery
Deaths

title: 367


lead: An earthquake strikes Nicaea (modern Turkey). Great Conspiracy: Picts, Scotti and Saxons reach Roman London and plunder the city. Theodosius, a general (Comes Britanniarum), is sent with a relief force to Britannia. He marches from Richborough, Kent, to deal with the invaders. Winter – The barbarians are driven back to their homelands, Hadrian's Wall is retaken and order returns to the Roman diocese. Theodosius reorganises the abandoned forts and mounts punitive expeditions in Hibernia (Ireland).

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
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title: 368


lead: King Shapur II occupies the pro-Roman kingdom of Armenia. He besieges Artogerassa in modern Georgia, where Papas (Pap), son of King Arsaces II (Arshak II), defends the fortress and the royal treasure against Persian forces. Theodosius the Elder brings Britain fully back to the Empire after the Great Conspiracy of 367. Wulfila creates a Gothic alphabet composed of letters based on Greek and Roman letters, as well as some Germanic runes. He converts the Goths to Arian Christianity.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
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title: 369


label: 37 CE

lead: The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius's will, and proclaims Caligula as Roman Emperor, nullifying the joint claim of Tiberius Gemellus. Caligula's attempt to have himself deified creates friction between himself and the Senate. Abilene is granted to King Agrippa I. The Pharisee Saul of Tarsus is converted to Christianity, after a vision (possible date). After the year 39, he is recognised as Saint Paul.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Health & Medicine
Climate & Environment
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title: 30s


lead: An edict issued by Valentinian I and Valens bans the importation of wine and olive oil from areas controlled by the barbarians. Germanic Invasions: Various Germanic tribes are forced against the northern borders of the Roman Empire as they flee the invading Huns. The Huns migrate westward from the Volga into Europe and subjugate the Alans and the Ostrogoths. With their arrival, a tradition of composite bows is introduced.

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Health & Medicine
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Deaths

title: 370


lead: Baekje forces sack the city of P'yongyang in Goguryeo. The Persian Empire attains the zenith of its power under King Shapur II as the Romans renew their war against Persia. Hostilities will continue for the next 5 years. Roman poet Ausonius writes of a voyage on the Rhine and the Moselle in his work 'Mosella'.

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Exploration & Expansion
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title: 371


lead: Jin Xiaowudi, age 10, succeeds his father Jin Jianwendi. Empress Chu Suanzi serves as regent, but decisions are made by the high officials Xie An and Wang Tanzhi. The Huns attack the Tervingi on the Dniester, overwhelming them with light cavalry (horse archers), and devastating the settlements of the Goths. King Athanaric is defeated and seeks refuge in Caucaland in the Carpathian Mountains. Saint Augustine adopts Manichaeism.

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title: 372


lead: Saint Martin of Tours undertakes the Christianization of Gaul. Battle of the Tanais River: The Huns defeat the Alans near the Don, sending the remnants fleeing westward. The Aqueduct of Valens is inaugurated near Constantinople (modern Istanbul); the aqueduct has a length of 971 meters.

title: 373


lead: Spearthrower Owl ascends to the throne and becomes ruler of Teotihuacan (Mexico). The people of Milan astonish Ambrosius, governor of Aemilia-Liguria, by acclaiming him bishop. He is the second son of the former praetorian prefect of Gaul, and becomes a creative thinker whose ideas will provide the paradigm for medieval church-state relations. The Quadi cross the Danube and begin ravaging Pannonia. They avoid the fortified cities and plunder the unprotected countryside.

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title: 374


lead: Emperor Valentinian I concludes an enduring peace with the Alamanni in Germany, then marches into Illyricum to repel an invasion of the Quadi and the Sarmatians on the Danube frontier. While negotiating with the Quadi, Valentinian, age 54, becomes so enraged that he dies in a fit of apoplexy at Brigetio (Hungary). Extreme cruelty has marked his 11-year reign, but he has also founded schools and provided physicians to serve the poor of Constantinople. The Talmud of Babylon is written by Rav Ashi. This commentary on the Mishnah contains approximately 2.5 million words on 5.894 pages. The earliest extant books – a school textbook and an account book – with bound wooden leaves, are lost at the Dakhla Oasis in western Egypt. The desert sands preserve them for modern archaeologists.

title: 375


lead: The Greuthungi, led by Alatheus and Saphrax, displaced by the predations of the Huns and Alans, request asylum within the Roman Empire. They are refused. The Roman frontier forces stretched to the breaking point, they slip across the Danube and unite with Fritigern. With their situation critical and desperately short of food, discontent is rising amongst the Goths. Zhang Tianxi, ruler of Former Liang, submits to Fu Jiān of Former Qin, thus ending the state of Former Liang. Zhang is made "Marquess of Guiyi". The Romans fail to disarm the Visigoths, bungle administration of the refugees, and mistreat them, taking some of their children as slaves. The Goths break out of their containment area along the Danube and strike south towards the low-lying fertile region near Marcianople (Bulgaria). Although defying the local Roman officials, they are not in open revolt.

title: 376


lead: Valens sends Saturninus to the Balkan Mountains to block the passes. These efforts are possibly supported by units of limitanei (light infantry) withdrawn from areas under Goth control. Split into small bands and unable to join the Tervingi in sufficient strength to overcome the Roman cordon, the Goths grow increasingly desperate. Autumn – Bands of predatory "barbarians" spread throughout the province in search of food, supplies and booty. Most Roman troops are bottled up in the towns. Some elite units remain in the field and skirmish with the Goths. One such action takes place outside the town of Dibaltum. The Scutarii heavy cavalry is destroyed in a mad charge against the Goths. Gothic War: Famine in Lower Moesia (occupied by the Goths) takes a fearsome toll. Fritigern and his followers appeal for help, but the governors Lupicinus and Maximus regard them as second-class citizens. Little help is forthcoming, and thousands starve to death. The pressure on the Roman frontier is still severe, with the Taifali and other hostile bands of Goths on the Danube. In addition, groups of Huns and Alans have also moved up to the river.

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title: 377


lead: Battle of Argentovaria: Emperor Gratian is forced to recall the army he has sent East. The Lentienses are defeated by Mallobaudes near Colmar (France). Gratian gains the title Alemannicus Maximus. Frigeridus, Roman general, fortifies the Succi (Ihtiman) Pass to prevent the "barbarians" from breaking out to the north-west (Pannonia). Battle of Adrianople: Valens leads an elite Roman army to Thrace to confront revolts, but is defeated.

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Crime & Justice
Climate & Environment
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title: 378


lead: Yax Nuun Ayiin (I) becomes ruler of Tikal. Former Qin captures the city of Xiangyang from Eastern Jin. The Buddhist monk Dao'an is transferred from Xiangyang to Chang'an. King Shapur II, ruler of the Persian Empire, age 70, dies after a 69-year reign in which he conquered Armenia and transferred multitudes of people from the western lands to Susiana (Khuzistan). The great town Nishapur in Khorasan (eastern Parthia) is also founded by him. His brother Ardashir II, governor-king of Adiabene, is placed by the nobles on the throne.

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title: 379


label: 38 CE

lead: Andrew the Apostle becomes the first patriarch of Constantinople, and resigns that position shortly thereafter (traditional date). Claudius and Messalina are most likely married at this point in time. Apion heads a deputation to Emperor Caligula, to complain about the Jews in Alexandria.

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title: 30s


lead: Edict of Thessalonica: Theodosius I, with co-emperors Gratian and Valentinian II, declare their wish that all Roman citizens convert to trinitarian Christianity, in accordance with the patriarchs of Rome and Alexandria, implicitly rejecting the Arianism of the patriarch of Constantinople as heretical. Theodosius I makes his adventus, or formal entry, into Constantinople. Easter Island, in the south Pacific Ocean, has been occupied by Neolithic seafarers under Hotu Matu'a ("supreme chief"), who about this time begin to fortify the island.

sections:
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title: 380


lead: Emperor Gratian moves the capital to Mediolanum (modern-day Milan). Because of his Christian beliefs, he eliminates Pontifex Maximus as Imperial title. Gratian also refuses the robe of office, insulting the pagan aristocrats of Rome. First Council of Constantinople (some authorities date this council to 383): Theodosius I calls a general council to affirm and extend the Nicene Creed, and denounce Arianism and Apollinarism. Most trinitarian churches consider this an Ecumenical council. The Gallic city of Cularo is renamed Gratianopolis (later Grenoble), in honor of Gratian having created a bishopric.

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title: 381


lead: Emperor Theodosius I commands his general Saturninus to conclude a peace treaty with the Visigoths, allowing them to settle south of the Danube. They are installed as foederati in Moesia and Thrace with the title of "Allies of the Roman People", in exchange for furnishing a contingent of auxiliary troops to defend the borders. Emperor Gratian refuses the divine attributes of the Imperial cult and removes the Altar of Victory from the Senate. The same council adopts Trinitarianism as doctrine, condemning Apollinarism. Theodosius I orders the death of members of the Manichaean monks.

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title: 382


lead: Emperor Gratian, age 24, is assassinated at Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon), leaving a young widow Laeta. Pannonia and Africa maintain their allegiance to co-emperor Valentinian II, now 12, whose mother, Justina, rules in his name. Magnus Maximus withdraws Roman troops from the region of Wales, marking the effective end of Roman rule in Wales. First Council of Constantinople (some authorities date this council to 381): Theodosius I calls a general council to affirm and extend the Nicene Creed, and denounce Arianism and Apollinarism. Most trinitarian Christian churches consider this an Ecumenical council.

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title: AD 383


lead: Pope Siricius succeeds Damasus I as the 38th pope. He takes the title Pontifex Maximus, after it is relinquished by the late emperor Gratian. Jerome, Christian prophet, writes his celebrated letter "De custodia virginitatis" (vow of virginity) to Eustochium, daughter of the ascetic Paula. He has by this time completed his Vulgate translation of the Gospels. The Gallaeci or Gallic woman Egeria concludes her Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land at about this date; her narrative of it, the Itinerarium Egeriae, may be the earliest surviving formal writing by a woman in western European culture.

title: 384


lead: Priscillian, Spanish bishop, is accused of Manichaeism and magic, and beheaded at Trier . He becomes the first person in the history of Christianity to be executed for heresy. Aurelios Zopyros becomes the last reported athlete at the Ancient Olympic Games. He is a victor in "junior boxing" (pankration). The Roman synod exiles the prophet Jerome, who has incorporated ideas first propounded by the Roman statesman Cicero. He departs for Egypt, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem, accompanied by the Christian ascetic Paula, who will edit Jerome's translation of the Bible, which becomes the Latin Vulgate.

sections:
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Religion & Belief
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Culture & Society
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title: 385


lead: Saint Ambrose defends the rights of the Catholic Church with respect to those of the State. A column is constructed at Constantinople in honour of Theodosius I. Reliefs depict the emperor's victory over the barbarians in the Balkan. The Northern Wei Dynasty begins in China. The Tuoba clan of the Xianbei tribe (proto-Mongol people) is politically separated from the Chinese dynasties established in Jiankang (modern Nanjing). The Northern Wei rulers are ardent supporters of Buddhism. Prince Dao Wu Di, age 15, becomes the first emperor (see Northern dynasties).

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Disasters & Accidents
Culture & Society
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title: 386


lead: Peace of Acilisene: King Shapur III signs a treaty with Theodosius I. Armenia is divided in two kingdoms, and becomes a vassal state of the Roman Empire and Persia. Spring – Emperor Theodosius I increases the taxes in Antioch. A peasant uprising leads to a riot, and public buildings are set afire. Theodosius sends imperial troops to quell the disturbance, and closes the public baths and theatres. Augustine is baptized on Easter Vigil by Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan.

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Science & Discovery
Culture & Society
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title: 387


lead: Magnus Maximus surrenders at Aquileia, and is executed. Theodosius I devotes himself to gluttony and voluptuous living. Maximus' son Flavius Victor is executed at Trier, by Valentinian's magister militum Arbogast. King Shapur III dies after a reign in which he has partitioned Armenia with the Roman Empire. He is succeeded by his son Bahram IV, who becomes the twelfth Sassanid king of Persia. Frankish invasion of 388: Rebellious Franks led by Marcomer, Sunno and Genobaud invade the Roman Empire with plunder and threaten Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne). A part of the invaders are destroyed by the Romans in the charcoal forest (present-day Belgium). The Roman general Quintines pursues the invaders on Frankish soil and is ambushed. His army is surrounded and defeated by the Franks.

title: 388


lead: All pagan buildings in Alexandria, including the library, are destroyed by fire.

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title: 389


label: 39 CE

lead: Caligula orders a floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for two miles from Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli. Agrippa I, king of Judaea, successfully accuses Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of conspiracy against Caligula. Antipas is exiled and Agrippa receives his territory. The Trung Sisters resist the Chinese influences in Vietnam.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Crime & Justice
Disasters & Accidents
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title: 30s


lead: Massacre of Thessalonica: Resentment among the citizens of Thessalonica (Macedonia) breaks out into violence after the arrest of a popular charioteer. Butheric, military commander of Illyricum, is murdered. Emperor Theodosius I orders vengeance, despite the pleas for mercy by Ambrose, bishop of Milan; more than 7,000 inhabitants are massacred by the Roman army. Theodosius I brings an obelisk from Egypt to the Hippodrome of Constantinople. C. 390–401 – Priestess of Bacchus: Late Antiquity ivory diptych; documents the relationship of the senators Quintus Aurelius Symmachus and Virius Nicomachus Flavianus. It commemorates the marriage of the two families. The right panel is inscribed "Symmachorum", with an elaborately dressed priestess who makes an offer on an altar. It is now kept at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

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title: 390


lead: Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, urban prefect of Rome, pleads for traditional cult practices. He petitions Theodosius I to re-open the pagan temples, but is opposed by Ambrose. A Rouran chief named Heduohan (曷多汗) is defeated and killed in battle against the Tuoba Northern Wei Dynasty. Surviving Rouran move west towards the Gaoche, led by Heduohan's brother and successor, Shelun. Flames destroy the great Library of Alexandria, established in the Mouseion in the fourth century BC. Among the items lost in the fire are works of science, including parchments by the Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos asserting that the Earth orbits the Sun, and dozens of dramatic works by Euripides and Sophocles.

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title: 391


lead: Emperor Valentinian II, age 21, dies while advancing into Gaul against the Frankish usurper Arbogast. He is found hanging in his residence at Vienne under unknown circumstances. Arbogast nominates Eugenius, Roman teacher of rhetoric, as the next emperor of the Western Roman Empire. He sends ambassadors to Theodosius's court asking for his recognition. Theodosius I issues an edict reinforcing the prohibition of prayers or sacrifices at non-Christian temples, leading to the persecution of pagans and the end of the almost 2,000-year-old Eleusinian Mysteries. He also bans items of pagan spiritual significance that could be used in the home, such as incense or spiritual figures.

title: 392


lead: Synod of Hippo: A council at Hippo Regius (Algeria) is hosted by the Church. The bishops approve a canon of Sacred Scripture that correspond to the Roman Catholic Church. Theodosius I abolishes the Greek Olympic Games, ending a thousand years of festivals, as part of the general Christian policy to establish universal Christian worship in accordance with the doctrines set forth in the Nicene Creed (the next Olympic Games will not be held until 1896). Yao Xing succeeds Yao Chang as emperor of the Later Qin Empire.

title: 393


lead: Battle of the Frigidus: Emperor Theodosius I defeats and kills the usurper Eugenius. The forces of Theodosius are bolstered by numerous auxiliaries, including 20,000 Visigoth federates under Alaric. The Frankish general Arbogast (magister militum) escapes into the Alps and commits suicide. The last known hieroglyphic inscription, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, is written in Philae, Egypt. In Rome, the sacred fire stops burning (see Vesta and Vestal Virgins).

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title: 394


lead: Emperor Theodosius I, age 48, dies of a disease involving severe edema in Milan. The Roman Empire is divided for the final time into an eastern and a western half. The Eastern Roman Empire is centered in Constantinople under Arcadius, son of Theodosius, and the Western Roman Empire in Mediolanum under his brother Honorius. Arcadius marries Aelia Eudoxia, daughter of the Frankish general Flavius Bauto (without the knowledge or consent of Rufinus, Praetorian prefect of the East). His seven-year-old half-sister, Galla Placidia, is sent to Rome, where she spends her childhood in the household of Stilicho and his wife Serena. Later Yan is defeated by its former vassal Northern Wei at the Battle of Canhe Slope, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period of China.

sections:
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Science & Discovery
Health & Medicine
Crime & Justice
Culture & Society
Deaths

title: 395


lead: Emperor Jìn Ān Dì, age 14, succeeds his father Emperor Xiaowu as ruler of the Eastern Jin dynasty after he is murdered by his concubine Honoured Lady Zhang. Lü Guang claims the title "Heavenly Prince" (Tian Wang), signifying his claim to the Later Liang Kingdom. Revolt of Alaric I: The Visigoths, led by Alaric I, rampage through Greece and plunder Corinth, Argos and Sparta. They destroy the Temple of Eleusis, and harry the Peloponnese. Stilicho makes peace with the Goths, and allows them to settle in Epirus (Balkans).

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title: 396


lead: Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, dies in his diocese after 23 years in office, during which he dominated the political life of the Roman Empire. Council of Carthage: The biblical canon is definitely declared. First Council of Toledo: Hispanic bishops, including Lampius, condemn Priscillianism.

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Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Health & Medicine
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title: 397


lead: Eutropius, Roman general (magister militum), celebrates his victory over the Huns ("the wolves of the North") in a parade through Constantinople (see 395). An imperial edict obliges Roman landowners with plantations to yield 1/3 of their fields to the "barbarians" who have been settled in the Roman Empire. Augustine of Hippo completes his Confessions, an autobiography that recounts his intellectual and spiritual development.

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title: 398


lead: Pope Siricius dies at Rome after a 15-year reign in which he has commanded celibacy for priests, asserted papal authority over the entire Western Church, and threatened to impose sanctions on those who do not follow his dictates. Anastasius I succeeds Siricius as the 39th pope. He seeks to reconcile the churches of Rome and Antioch. Anastasius also condemns the doctrine of Origen. King Bahram IV dies after an 11-year reign. He is succeeded by Yazdegerd I, who becomes the thirteenth Sassanid Emperor of Persia.

sections:
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title: 399


label: 4 CE

lead: AD 4 – The Lex Aelia Sentia regulates the manumission of slaves. AD 4 – Emperor Ping of Han marries Empress Wang (Ping), daughter of Wang Mang, cementing his influence. AD 4 – Namhae Chachaung succeeds Bak Hyeokgeose as king of the Korean kingdom of Silla (traditional date).

title: 0s


label: 40 CE

lead: Construction begins on the Pont du Gard aqueduct in Gallia Narbonensis (approximate date). Caligula reforms the principatus into a Hellenistic Autocracy. He distributes honors carelessly, declares himself a god and orders that all the heads of the Greek deity statues be replaced by his. He also appoints his horse, Incitatus, to the Senate. The Vietnamese Trưng Sisters rebel against the rule of the Chinese Emperor Guang Wu of Han.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Culture & Society
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title: 40s


lead: Emperor Arcadius gives his wife Aelia Eudoxia the official title of Augusta. She is able to wear the purple paludamentum and is depicted in Roman currency. The mausoleum of Galerius in Salonica (Greece) is converted into a church. Resurrection and "Two Marys with Angel near the Empty Tomb", panel of a diptych, found in Rome, is made. It is now kept at Castello Sforzesco, Milan (approximate date).

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Economy & Finance
Science & Discovery
Health & Medicine
Births
Deaths

title: 400


lead: Pope Anastasius I dies at Rome after a 2-year reign, and is succeeded by Innocent I as the 40th pope proclaiming his universal power over the whole of Christendom. Kumarajiva, Kuchean Buddhist monk, arrives in Chang'an and begins translating Buddhist texts into Chinese. The Mahabharata, an Indian Sanskrit epic, is finalised.

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Religion & Belief
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Disasters & Accidents
Climate & Environment
Culture & Society
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title: 401


lead: Battle of Pollentia: Stilicho recalls troops from Britain and the Rhine frontier to defend Italy. He decides to attack the Goths on Easter Sunday, and manages to capture Alaric's wife and children. The Pure Land school of Buddhism founds a monastery upon the top of Mount Lushan. Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, makes a pilgrimage to India, initiating Sino-Indian relations. Stirred by his faith to Buddhism, he visits the sites of Siddhartha Gautama's life.

sections:
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Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Deaths

title: 402


lead: Battle of Verona: The Visigoths, under command of King Alaric I, invade Italy again, and advance through the Brenner Pass. Stilicho, with an army of 30,000 men, defeats the Goths north of Verona. Alaric makes a truce, and withdraws eastward to Illyricum. The Synod of the Oak deposes and banishes John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople, but shortly afterward he is recalled only to be banished again. Asin of Baekje allies with Silla against Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo (Korea).

sections:
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Conflict & Security
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title: 403


lead: Last known gladiator fight in Rome: This date is usually given as the date of the martyrdom of Saint Telemachus, a Christian monk who was stoned by the crowd for trying to stop a gladiators' fight in a Roman amphitheatre. Empress Eudoxia has her seventh and last pregnancy, which ends in a miscarriage. She is left bleeding and dies of an infection shortly after. The Chinese Buddhist monk Huiyuan, who founded the Pure Land Buddhism sect and the monastery on Mount Lushan, writes the book On Why Monks Do Not Bow Down Before Kings in this year. In his book he argues that although the Buddhist clergy should remain independent and undisturbed by politics, the Buddhist laymen nonetheless make good subjects under monarchs, due to their fear of retribution of karma and desire to be reborn in paradise.

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title: AD 404


lead: Jerome's Vulgate translation of the Bible into Latin is completed by his translations of the Tanakh from the Hebrew language. Emperor Honorius closes the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum), in an austerity move that abolishes amusements. The Japanese court officially adopts the Chinese writing system (approximate date).

sections:
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Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Science & Discovery
Crime & Justice
Disasters & Accidents
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title: 405


lead: Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine at Mogontiacum (modern Mainz), beginning an invasion of Gaul (traditional date, this may have occurred in 405). Hanzei succeeds his brother Richu, and becomes the 18th emperor of Japan in the traditional order of succession. Cultivation of rye, oats, hops, and spelt (a wheat used for livestock feed) is introduced in Europe by the native Vandals, Alans, and Sciri, who also introduce a heavy wheeled plow to be used for farming.

sections:
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Climate & Environment
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title: 406


lead: End of Roman rule in Britain: After 360 years of occupation, the local regional British-Roman leaders raise their own levies for defence against Saxon sea rovers. They cultivate oysters, having learned the technique from the Romans. Liu Bobo (Xia Wuliedi) founds the state of Xia, and claims the title "Heavenly Prince" (Tian Wang). Roman Civil war of 407–415:Constantine III, a general (magister militum), declares himself Roman emperor. To extend his dominion over Gaul and Spain, he takes practically all the Roman garrisons from Britain and crosses the English Channel. Constantine occupies Arles and establishes tenuous authority over Gaul, sharing control with marauding "barbarians". This is generally seen as the beginning of Rome's withdrawal from Britain.

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title: 407


lead: Emperor Arcadius dies in his palace at Constantinople, after a weak 13-year reign. He is succeeded by his 7-year-old son, Theodosius II, who rules under the domination of his devout Christian sister Pulcheria and Anthemius, who acts as regent. Rex Alaric I of the Visigoths crosses the Julian Alps with an army of 30,000 men, and marches into the Roman heartland. He lays siege to Rome, and Gothic auxiliaries desert to join Alaric's forces. After much bargaining, the Senate agrees to pay him a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, and 3,000 hides dyed scarlet. Alaric I exacts a tribute from Rome that includes 3,000 pounds of pepper. The spice is valued for alleged medicinal virtues and for disguising spoilage in meat that is past its prime.

sections:
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Conflict & Security
Technology & Infrastructure
Health & Medicine
Crime & Justice
Culture & Society
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title: 408


lead: The Vandals, led by King Gunderic, cross the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula. They receive land from the Romans, as foederati, in Baetica (Southern Spain). The Alans occupy lands in Lusitania and the Suebi control parts of Gallaecia. Bacaudic Rebellion: Peasants in Armorica, northwestern Gallia launch a revolt. The unrest continues until 417. Mingyuan, age 17, succeeds Daowu as emperor of the Chinese Northern Wei (one of the Northern dynasties).

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Climate & Environment
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title: 409


label: 41 CE

lead: Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. Emperor Guang Wu of the Han Dynasty deposes his wife, Guo Shengtong, as empress, and makes his consort Yin Lihua empress in her place. Claudius restores religious freedom to Jews throughout the empire, but prohibits Jews in Rome from proselytising.

title: 40s


lead: The city of Aléria on the island of Corsica is devastated by a huge fire, destroying its port and most of its inhabitants. Spring – Constantine III crosses the Alps into Liguria (Northern Italy), but retreats to Gaul after Gerontius revolts in Spain against his son Constans II. Raiders from Ireland, such as the Uí Liatháin and Laigin, harry the coasts of Wales. They plunder towns and capture slaves but later colonise large areas of what is called Gwynedd, in particular Llŷn, the coasts of Arllechwedd, Arfon and the Isle of Mona (approximate date).

sections:
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Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Disasters & Accidents
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title: 410


lead: Following the defeat of Constantine III, the Burgundians and the Gallic nobility proclaim Jovinus, Gallo-Roman senator, emperor of the Western Roman Empire at Mogontiacum (modern Mainz). Battle of Vienne: Emperor Constantine III sends his son Constans II to stop the advance of Gerontius. Constans is defeated and killed. Ingyo succeeds his brother Hanzei, and becomes the 19th emperor of Japan.

sections:
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Conflict & Security
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title: AD 411


lead: Heraclianus, governor (Comes Africae), revolts against Honorius and proclaims himself Augustus. He interrupts the grain supply to Rome. Honorius condemns him and his supporters to death with an edict at Ravenna. Lazarus, bishop of Aix-en-Provence, and Heros, bishop of Arles, are expelled from their sees on a charge of Manichaeism. Winter – Olympiodorus, historical writer, is sent on an embassy by Honorius, and sails in stormy weather around Greece up the Black Sea, to meet the Huns who are located on the middle Danube (modern Bulgaria).

sections:
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Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Health & Medicine
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title: 412


lead: Honorius signs an edict providing tax relief for the Italian provinces Tuscia, Campania, Picenum, Samnium, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria, which were plundered by the Visigoths. Augustine of Hippo, age 59, begins to write his spiritual book De Civitate Dei (City of God), as a reply to the charge that Christianity was responsible for the decline of the Roman Empire. Kumaragupta I succeeds his father Chandragupta II as emperor of the Gupta Empire (India).

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Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
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Deaths

title: 413


lead: Galla Placidia, half-sister of emperor Honorius, is married to the Visigothic king Ataulf at Narbonne. The wedding is celebrated with Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty. Emperor Theodosius II, age 13, yields power to his older sister Aelia Pulcheria, who reigns as regent and proclaims herself empress (Augusta) of the Eastern Roman Empire. Abdas, bishop of Susa, burns down a Zoroastrian temple; in retaliation, King Yazdegerd I of Persia orders the destruction of churches.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Culture & Society
Deaths

title: 414


lead: Hypatia of Alexandria, Neoplatonist philosopher, is murdered by a Christian mob of Nitrian monks at the church (former temple conceived by Cleopatra VII) called Caesareum. Having driven out the Jews, Alexandria's new patriarch, Cyril, has instigated the mob after taking offense at Hypatia's scientific rationalism (approximate date). John Cassian, Christian theologian, settles at a monastery in Marseille (Gaul); he organizes monastic communities after an eastern model. Constantius, Roman general (magister militum), drives the Visigoths out of Gaul. He captures the usurper Priscus Attalus, and sends him under military escort to Ravenna.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Climate & Environment
Deaths

title: 415


lead: Rutilius Claudius Namatianus begins his journey home from Rome to Gaul. This becomes the subject of his unfinished poem, De Reditu Suo. Priscus Attalus, Roman usurper, is forced to participate in a triumph celebrated by Emperor Honorius, in the streets of Rome. After the festivities, he is exiled to the Lipari Islands (north of Sicily). The Visigoths continue their invasion of Hispania, and take control of Tarraconensis. King Wallia occupies the gold mines at Las Médulas, and forces Jewish citizens to convert to Christianity.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Crime & Justice
Climate & Environment
Deaths

title: 416


lead: Emperor Honorius forces his half-sister Galla Placidia into marriage to Constantius, his general (magister militum). He is appointed patricius and becomes a prominent member of the House of Theodosius. Pope Innocent I condemns Pelagianism, and excommunicates the ascetic Pelagius. Innocent I dies after a 16-year reign in which he has restored relations between the sees of Rome and Antioch, enforced celibacy of the clergy, and maintained the right of the bishop of Rome to judge appeals from other churches. Innocent is succeeded by Zosimus as the 41st pope.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Culture & Society
Births
Deaths

title: 417


lead: Pope Boniface I succeeds Zosimus as the 42nd pope. Theodoric I becomes king of the Visigoths. He completes the settlements in Gallia Aquitania and expands his military power to the south. Eulalius is elected antipope of Rome. He claims in a letter to Honorius his recognition as pope.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Births

title: 418


lead: Jin Gongdi, age 33, succeeds his developmentally disabled brother Jin Andi as emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Andi is strangled by orders of the warlord Liu Yu. A law is passed, prohibiting the act of instructing barbarians on shipbuilding in the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.

title: 419


label: 42 CE

lead: The Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity (the exact date is not provided in texts, but the Roman Catholic Church chooses to commemorate this date). Claudius begins construction of Portus, a harbour bearing a lighthouse on the right bank of the Tiber. Traditional date of foundation of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria by the apostle Mark the Evangelist.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Technology & Infrastructure
Births
Deaths

title: 40s


lead: The Jin Dynasty ends in China. Liu Yu (Emperor Wu of Liu Song) becomes the first ruler of the Liu Song Dynasty. The capital of the dynasty is Nanjing. Abdas, bishop of Susa, is accused of burning down one of the fire temples of Ahura Mazda, and after refusing to rebuild it, he is executed, under orders of Shah Yazdegerd I. The Southern Dynasties begin in China.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Births
Deaths

title: AD 420


lead: Emperor Theodosius II marries Aelia Eudocia, a woman of Greek origin. The wedding is celebrated at Constantinople with chariot racing in the Hippodrome. Constantius III dies suddenly of an illness; his wife Galla Placidia becomes, for the second time, a widow. Roman–Sassanid War: Theodosius II starts a war against the Sassanids, sending an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and invades Mesopotamia.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Culture & Society
Deaths

title: 421


lead: Theodosius II issues a law to form provisions in peacetime. He instructs landowners leasing towers in the Theodosian Walls to assist with the build-up of emergency goods. Theodosius pays an annual tribute of 350 pounds of gold to the Huns in order to buy peace. Pope Boniface I dies after a 4-year reign that was interrupted for 15 weeks, by the faction of the antipope Eulalius. He is succeeded by Celestine I as the 43rd pope. Petrus, bishop of Illyria, starts construction of the Church of Santa Sabina (approximate date).

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Climate & Environment
Culture & Society
Births
Deaths

title: 422


lead: Emperor Honorius, age 38, dies at Ravenna of dropsy, perhaps pulmonary edema. With no children to claim the throne, Joannes, primicerius notariorum ("chief notary", head of the civil service), seizes the throne of the Western Roman Empire, and is declared emperor. Among his supporters are Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum). Joannes' rule is accepted in the dioceses of Gaul, Hispania and Italia, but not in Africa. Winter – Emperor Theodosius II refuses to recognize Joannes as emperor, and prepares for war. He mobilizes an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and his son Flavius Aspar. Theodoret becomes bishop of Cyrrhus (Syria). He converts more than 1,000 Marcionites in his diocese.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Culture & Society
Births
Deaths

title: 423


lead: Flavius Anthemius Isidorus becomes the new Praetorian prefect of Illyricum, comprising most of Greece and Serbia, taking office at the capital, Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia). (Jing'ping era, 2nd year, 5th month (wǔyuè), the yi'you day) Emperor Shao of the Liu Song dynasty of China, is deposed by government ministers Xu Xianzhi and Fu Liang, who install his younger brother Prince Liu Yilong as the new Emperor. (Yuanjia era, 1st year, 8th month (bāyuè), dingyou day) Prince Liu Yilong is formally enthroned as the Emperor Wen of Song of China at its capital in Jiankang.

sections:
Geopolitics & Diplomacy
Conflict & Security
Religion & Belief
Crime & Justice
Culture & Society

title: 424


lead: The University of Constantinople is founded by emperor Theodosius II at the urging of his wife Aelia Eudocia. The Huns advance unopposed on Constantinople, but are halted by a plague that decimates their hordes (see 433). After death of Gamaliel VI, the Sanhedrin is disbanded by the Roman Empire.

sections:
Conflict & Security
Exploration & Expansion
Religion & Belief
Health & Medicine
Culture & Society
Births
Deaths

title: 425